Democratic Backsliding in Europe and Gender Mainstreaming: Challenges and Goals for Women

DEMOCRATI C BACKSLI DI NG I N EUROPE AND GENDER MAI NSTREAMI NG:  CHALLENGES AND GOALS FOR W OM EN   4 Pl agi ari sm       I he r e by de c l ar e t hat al l i nf or m at i on i n t hi s doc um e nt has be e n obt ai ne d and pr e s e nt e d by ac ade m i c r ul e s and e t hi c al c onduc t . I al s o de c l ar e t hat , as r e qui r e d by t he s e r ul e s and c onduc t , I hav e f ul l y c i t e d and r e f e r e nc e d al l m at e r i al and r e s ul t s t hat ar e not or i gi nal t o t hi s wor k .  Nam e , L as t Nam e : Se l e ne R os s e l l i
DEMOCRATI C BACKSLI DI NG I N EUROPE AND GENDER MAI NSTREAMI NG:  CHALLENGES AND GOALS FOR W OM EN   5 Abs t ract    T he t he s i s ai m s t o anal y z e t he c hal l e nge s and l i m i t s of t he s t r at e gy of ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng dur i ng t he de m oc r at i c bac k l as h i n E ur ope . T he pol i t i c al t r e nds of t he l as t de c ade i n t he we s t e r n r e gi ons agai ns t t he pr i nc i pal v al ue s of de m oc r ac y ar e dr i v i ng a bac k l as h agai ns t wom e n' s r i ght s . E v e n i n E ur ope , whe r e t he E ur ope an U ni on i ns t i t ut i ons hav e be e n am ong t he pi one e r s of wom e n' s hum an r i ght s , pr om ot i ng ge nde r e qual i t y am ong m e m be r s t at e s i s an i ns i di ous t as k .  T he s t r at e gy of ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng, de f i ne d by t he E ur ope an I ns t i t ut e of G e nde r E qual i t y as t he " s t r at e gy t owar ds r e al i z i ng ge nde r e qual i t y t hat i nv ol v e s t he i nt e gr at i on of a ge nde r pe r s pe c t i v e i nt o t he pr e par at i on, de s i gn, i m pl e m e nt at i on, m oni t or i ng and e v al uat i on of pol i c i e s ," i s c ons i de r e d by t he E ur ope an U ni on a s t he be s t s t r at e gy t o t ac k l e ge nde r i ne qual i t i e s . H owe v e r , s i nc e i t s c r e at i on i n t he 1980s , ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng has s hown s om e di f f i c ul t i e s i n i t s appl i c at i on and adopt i on by m e m be r s t at e s . T oday , wi t h t he de m oc r at i c r e gr e s s i on, appl y i ng ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng i s e v e n m or e c hal l e ngi ng. Wi t h t hi s t he s i s , af t e r r e c ons t r uc t i ng t he di f f e r e nt s t r at e gi e s us e d by t he E ur ope an U ni on i ns t i t ut i ons t o pr om ot e ge nde r e qual i t y and t he pat h t owar ds t he c r e at i on of ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng, I wi l l t r y t o ans we r t he que s t i on " i s t he s t r at e gy of ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng e nough t o pr om ot e and pr ot e c t wom e n' s hum an r i ght s dur i ng a de m oc r at i c bac k l as h?" , by anal y z i ng what t he di f f i c ul t i e s and t he l i m i t s of ge nde r m ai ns t r e am i ng ar e, and wh ich r ol e hav e i ns t i t ut i ons and Me m be r St at e s i n appl y i ng and pr om ot i ng i t .
DEMOCRATI C BACKSLI DI NG I N EUROPE AND GENDER MAI NSTREAMI NG:  CHALLENGES AND GOALS FOR W OM EN   7 In tr o d u c tio n    M os t of t he time , w e t e nd t o t hi nk a bout t he c onc e pt of de m oc ra c y , s uc h a s s om e t hi ng t ha t c onc e rns a l l c i t i z e ns t he s a m e w a y. But de m oc ra c y , a s w e know it i n E urope , i s not ge nde r -ne ut ra l, a nd ne i t he r i s i t s re gre s s i on . O n t he c ont ra ry, t he pol i t i c a l t re nds of t he l a s t de c a de i n t he w e s t e rn re gi ons a ga i ns t t he pri nc i pa l va l ue s of de m oc ra c y a re dri vi ng a ba c kl a s h a ga i ns t w om e n’s ri ght s .  T he w a ve of de m oc ra t i z a t i on t ha t be ga n a s e a rl y a s t he 1970s i s now rol l i ng ba c k , a nd gl oba l fre e dom i s de c l i ni ng 1 . A m ore s i gni fi c a nt num be r of c ount ri e s a c ros s t he gl obe ha ve s e e n de t e ri ora t i on ra t he r t ha n i m prove m e nt i n t he qua l i t y of t he i r l i be ra l de m oc ra c i e s .  T he de m oc ra t i c ba c ks l i di ng seems t o be re l a t e d t o a l a rge di s c ont e nt w i t h l i be ra l de m oc ra c y, de c re a s i ng l e ve l s of pol i t i c a l pa rt i c i pa t i on a nd t rus t , a nd a n e ros i on of t ra di t i ona l pa rt y s ys t e m s . D e m oc ra t i c ba c ks l i di ng ha s a l s o be e n re l a t e d t o a c ul t ura l ba c kl a s h a ga i ns t ongoi ng s oc i a l c ha nge s , i nc l udi ng progre s s i n ge nde r e qua l i t y 2 .   E ve n i f t he re i s a l a c k of c onc e pt ua l c l a ri t y a bout t he de fi ni t i on of de m oc ra t i c ba c ks l i di ng, s om e s c hol a rs t ri e d t o de l i ne a t e a n i de nt i fi c a t i on . G re s kovi t s i de nt i fi e s i t as a “ de s t a bi l i z a t i on or e ve n a re ve rs a l i n t he di re c t i on of de m oc ra t i c de ve l opm e nt ” 3 , N a nc y Be rm e o de fi ne s it as t he “ state -l e d de bi l i t a t i on or e l i m i na t i on of a ny of t he pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t s us t a i n a n e xi s t i ng  1 Andr ea Kr i zs an and Conny Roggeband, ‘ Towar ds a Concept ual Fr amewor k f or St r uggl es over 
Democr acy i n Backs l i di ng St at es : Gender Equal i t y Pol i c y i n Cent r al Eas t er n Eur ope’ , The Feminist 
Proj ect under Threat in E u ro p e 6, no. 3 (2018), https://doi. org/10. 17645/pag.v6i3. 1414. 2 Pippa Norris and Ronald F. Inglehart, ‘Trump, Brexit, and t he Rise of Popul ism : Econom ic H ave - Not s and Cul t ur al Backl as h’ , HKS Facul t y Res ear ch Wor ki ng Paper Ser i es RWP16 - 026 (2016), 
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Pol i cy 6, no. S1 (2015), https://doi. org/10. 1111/ 1758 - 5899.12225.
DEMOCRATI C BACKSLI DI NG I N EUROPE AND GENDER MAI NSTREAMI NG:  CHALLENGES AND GOALS FOR W OM EN   8 de m oc ra c y ” 4 , w hi l e a c c ordi ng t o M i l a da A nna V a c hudova , de m oc ra t i c ba c ks l i di ng oc c urs not ne c e s s a ri l y t hrough t he e l i m i na t i on of pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons but a l s o by t he de t e ri ora t i on of i nform a l norm s a nd pol i t i c a l l i fe s uc h a s m e di a c ont rol a nd pol i t i c a l s pe e c he s . 5   Re c ogni z i ng t he proc e s s of de m oc ra t i c ba c ks l i di ng c a n be a n i ns i di ous t a s k be c a us e of i t s va ri a t i on a c ros s c ount ri e s , re gi m e s , a nd c ul t ure s . In s om e s t a t e s , de m oc ra t i c re gre s s i on a ppe a rs t ra ns pa re nt s uc h a s i n H unga ry or P ol a nd . S t i l l , i n ot he r c ount ri e s , t he proc e s s of ba c ks l i di ng ha ppe ns t o be m ore s i l e nt , a s i n t he Cz e c h Re publ i c w i t h t he A N O pol i t i c a l pa rt y’s ri s e 6 . H ow e ve r, popul i s t gove rnm e nt s w i t h oppos i ng vi e w s on ge nde r e qua l i t y ha ve t a ke n offi c e i n W e s t e rn c ount ri e s ope nl y or m ore c onfi de nt i a l l y . P ol i t i c a l di s c ours e s c ha nge d from l a rge l y s upport i ve or s i l e nt pos i t i ons on ge nde r e qua l i t y t o c ha l l e ngi ng a nd form a l l y a dopt e d a nd a c c e pt e d pol i c i e s . T hi s i s e ve n m ore re m a rka bl e a s m a ny t ra di t i ona l i s t re gi m e s prom ot e fa m i l y - fri e ndl y proj e c t s t o e nforc e he t e ronorm a t i ve a nd pa t ri a rc ha l m ode l s , a i m i ng at 
re duc i ng re produc t i ve ri ght s , a nd a re ve he m e nt l y oppos e d t o t he ri ght s of s e xua l m i nori t i e s .  P opul i s t p ol i t i c a l pa rt i e s a nd c ons e rva t i ve a c t ors a re dri ve n by t he i r s ha re d ‘a nt i - ge nde ri s m ’ i de ol ogy, w hi c h re c ons i de rs t he doc t ri ne of ‘ge nde r’ as a s oc i a l c ons t ruc t i on a nd w a rns of its re pe rc us s i on on s oc i e t y. A c c ordi ng t o t he a nt i - ge nde ri s m i de ol ogy , prom ot i ng ge nde r a s s om e t hi ng w e c a n c hoos e oppos e s t he na t ura l l a w a nd t he va l ue s of fa m i l y a nd re produc t i on. S uc h pol i t i c a l aims not onl y re s t ri c t w om e n’s re produc t i ve a nd s e xua l ri ght s but a l s o a ffe c t t he i r pos i t i on i n t he l a bor m a rke t a nd pol i t i c s .    4 Nancy Ber meo, ‘ On Democr at i c Backs l i di ng’ , John H opkins U niversity Press 27, no. 1 (2016): 5 – 19, https://m use. jhu. edu/ article/607612. 5 Mi l ada Anna Vachudova, ‘ Et hnopopul i s m and Democr at i c Backs l i di ng i n Cent r al Eur ope’ , East 
European Pol i t i cs 36, no. 3 (2020): 318 – 40, 
https://w w w . tandfonline. com/doi/abs/10. 1080/ 21599165.2020.1787163?j ournalCode=fjcs21. 6 Vachudova.
DEMOCRATI C BACKSLI DI NG I N EUROPE AND GENDER MAI NSTREAMI NG:  CHALLENGES AND GOALS FOR W OM EN   9 W hi l e t hi s ge nde re d de m oc ra t i c de c a y oc c urs a m ong E urope a n gove rnm e nt s , re gi ona l i ns t i t ut i ons s uc h a s t he E urope a n U ni on ha ve a funda m e nt a l rol e i n prot e c t i ng a nd e ns uri ng ge nde r e qua l i t y.  S i nc e i t s c re a t i on, t he E urope a n U ni on ha s be e n t he l e a di ng propone nt of ge nde r e qua l i t y a nd s pa c e t o w e l c om e de m a nds t o fi ght a ga i ns t ge nde r i ne qua l i t i e s . E ve n w he n i t w a s s t i l l c a l l e d t he E urope a n Com m uni t y , t he E U w a s a l re a dy a dva nc i ng i t s e ffort s t o prom ot e w om e n’s hum a n ri ght s w i t h t he a dopt i on of A rt i c l e 119 of t he T re a t y of Rom e , e s t a bl i s hi ng t he pri nc i pl e of e qua l pa y for e qua l w ork for t he fi rs t time . In fa c t , i n t he m i d -1970s , t he E urope a n U ni on l a unc h ed t he fi rs t pol i t i c a l s t ra t e gy t o a dva nc e ge nde r e qua l i t y, ba s e d on t he pri nc i pl e of e qua l t re a t m e nt , c om pl e m e nt e d i n t he 1980s w i t h t he foc us on e qua l opport uni t i e s . T he pos s i bi l i t y of e qua l opport uni t i e s t hrough pos i t i ve a c t i ons w a s e voke d a nd l e gi t i m i z e d for t he fi rs t t i m e i n hi s t ory . A s e t of di re c t i ve s w e re a dopt e d t o fi ght ge nde r di s c ri m i na t i on i n t he w orkpl a c e , e s pe c i a l l y for e ns uri ng e qua l t re a t m e nt re ga rdi ng a c c e s s t o e m pl oym e nt , prom ot i on, a nd w orki ng c ondi t i ons , a s w e l l a s t he s oc i a l s e c uri t y s e c t or, s uc h a s s i c kne s s a nd i nva l i di t y a nd prot e c t i on for pre gna nt w orke rs .  T he rol e of t he E urope a n U ni on Court of J us t i c e , on t he one ha nd , was c ruc i a l t o de m ons t ra t e t ha t t he pri nc i pl e s of e qua l t re a t m e nt a nd opport uni t i e s w e re c ons i de re d funda m e nt a l hum a n ri ght s . S t i l l , on t he ot he r, i t l i m i t e d t he i m pa c t of pos i t i ve a c t i on for ge nde r e qua l i t y.  E qua l opport uni t i e s a nd pos i t i ve a c t i on s t ra t e gi e s a re c e nt e re d on e m pow e ri ng w om e n but w e re a ffi rm e d t hrough di ffe re nt pa t hs . T he form e r w a s c onc e i ve d t o e s t a bl i s h e qua l i t y be t w e e n w om e n a nd m e n, provi di ng e qua l a c c e s s , w hi l e t he l a t t e r a i m s t o provi de a ddi t i ona l a c c e s s for di s a dva nt a ge d groups to a c hi e ve e qua l i t y.  N ot w i t hs t a ndi ng t he c ons i de ra bl e de ve l opm e nt s , a ne w s t ra t e gy w a s ne e de d to e xt e nd t he ra nge of a c t i vi t i e s from t he s oc i a l a re a t o a l l t he ot he r pol i c y a re a s . It was a round 1985, duri ng t he T hi rd Confe re nc e on W om e n, t ha t t he s t ra t e gy of G e nde r M a i ns t re a m i ng w a s born , w i t h t he i de a of a pol i c y a c t i on t hrough w hi c h ge nde r e qua l i ty w oul d be i nt e gra t e d hori z ont a l l y i nt o a l l publ i c pol i c i e s , i n a l l s t a ge s of t he pol i t i c a l proc e s s to act a pr i or i , t o pre ve nt ge nde r i ne qua l i t i e s .