Cultural Experiences in Italian Oenogastronomic Tourism: Treviso, The City of Tiramisù

10 
Introduction 
This thesis concludes my Master of Linguistic Mediation, Tourism and Cultures 
(Humanities Department), University of Trento, Italy. There are two main reasons why I have 
undertaken this work: the first is the appealing embryonic state which currently characterises 
oenogastronomic tourism, hence the curiosity to develop its potential further. Even if I 
experienced a certain difficulty to find academic contributions and research related to the 
topic, due to the fact that it is a relatively new area of study, the lack of sources actually 
provided me with the necessary challenge to develop this theme and to seek out the few 
studies and investigations that have been attempted so far. Indeed, exploring and analysing 
current trends in oenogastronomic tourism has allowed me to learn just how many places in 
the world are emerging as food and wine destinations, as well as to understand the infinite 
diversity in the oenogastronomic field and its applications in the area of tourism. In brief, this 
topic provides plenty of food for thought: my goal is to explore the way in which this trend is 
evolving from both the demand and supply perspectives; hence, my interest is also to uncover 
the enormous potential and possible benefits that traditional food and wine products might 
generate through a suitable, strategically engineered tourism offer, both at the local and 
international level. Moreover, the province of Treviso, my birthplace and the destination 
analysed in my feasibility study, is one of those areas whose suitability for this type of 
tourism, based partly on its culinary heritage, already possesses the necessary prerequisites to 
attract tourists keen on traditional specialities and high-quality cuisine contextualised in a 
unique landscape. The second reason for picking this topic and for focusing my feasibility 
study on Treviso and Tiramisù is due to certain  lively signs which show that the area is aware 
of its oenogastronomic potential and is launching some initiatives to meet this new type of 
tourist demand. This fresh dimension is indeed vivacious, stimulating and already worthy of 
assessment, thus offering scope for the development of creative and alternative ideas and 
enhancing local culture.  
The investigation for the thesis was undertaken throughout the second academic year 
of my course, during which I collected materials, formulated research questions and explored 
themes coherent with the main topic. To be more precise, the works Tourism and 
Gastronomy, by A. M. Hjalager and G. Richards, and Tasting Tourism: Travelling for Food 
and Drink, by Priscilla Boniface, were essential for the theoretical part of my thesis.  
Chapter One is dedicated to the cultural contextualisation of the new phenomenon and 
the principal reasons why the tourist might look for tasting experiences while travelling. After 
tracing the relationship between humans and food throughout history and highlighting the 
reciprocal influence between them; then follows a paragraph dealing with the analysis of how 
and when oenogastronomy and tourism came together to develop as a unique dimension. 
Subsequently, there is an attempt to define oenogastronomic tourism, beginning with the first
11 
contribution on the topic by Lucy Long in 1998 (Culinary tourism), followed by a 
terminological examination of the concept. The chapter ends with the considerations and 
implications surrounding the crossover into cultural and rural tourism, as well as a separate 
exploration of wine tourism. Chapter Two adopts a sociological approach to analyse the 
effects of globalisation on oenogastronomy, which has provoked a counter reaction from the 
tourist-consumer, who feels a new compulsion to rediscover the roots and original identity of 
certain foods. On this matter, the work Food and Environment – Geographies of Taste, edited 
by A rma ndo Mont a na ri, prove d e ssential in portr a y in g how g lobalis a ti on influe nc e s pe ople’ s choice of food, the enhancement of diversity and the renewed relevance of the area of 
production that generates value for the product. Furthermore, a study on the behavioural 
attitudes of contemporary oenogastronomic tourism leads to an attempt at market 
segmentation, which is still as variable and heterogeneous as consumer interests. As regards 
the first part of Chapter Three, Il turismo enogastronomico by Croce and Perri was useful 
when looking at the importance of adopting a territorial approach in developing an 
oenogastronomic destination. It is crucial to take account of the key-concepts of quality and 
sustainability to facilitate the effective transformation of food and wine from resource to 
tourism produ c t, de pe n ding on the suit a bil it y of the de sti na ti on. Th e n, F a bio F orla ni ’s 
perspective on experiential tourism raised my awareness of the importance of this dimension 
in food and wine tourism, showing the extent to which the marrying together of both types of 
tourism consistently meets the need of the present day consumer- tourist (Forla ni’s ke y wor ks on the subject are Marketing, experience e territorio and Il marketing dei prodotti tipici nella 
prospettiva dell’economica delle esperienze). Finally, the works Il luoghi del gusto by Davide 
Paolini and Turisti per gusto by M. Antonioli Corigliano and G. Viganò played the vade 
mecum role during the structuring of Chapter Four, as they provided reliable tools to help 
identify both the opportunities and the weaknesses of my proposal. Chapter six of Marketing 
delle destinazioni turistiche, by Umberto Martini, helped me to identify suitable activities that 
the supply sector should develop to offer a qualitative experience centred around the dessert. 
However, the major contributor to my feasibility study originates from the three-
month internship I completed in October 2012 at the Department for Tourism in the Province 
of Treviso (Veneto region, Italy). In fact, it was there that I was privileged to have access to 
tourism data collected from surveys carried out at IAT desks and accommodation facilities as 
well as access to processed data and reports written by CISET - Centro Internazionale di Studi 
sull’Economica Turistica. Most importantly, the professional experience and skills of the 
people who work there helped me on designing  my project with practical suggestions and 
useful ideas, helping me to adopt a realistic approach to my study. The next six months were 
dedicated to further interviews with experts on local oenogastronomy and tourism, who 
offered their opinions on my proposal. In addition, the annual reports by Unioncamere and 
Associazione Nazionale Città del Vino – Censis Servizi were fundamental in contextualising
12 
the oenogastronomic tourism trend in Italy and in the province of Treviso. As regards my 
feasibility study on Tiramisù, I would like to point out that it is a modest attempt to create an 
effective and suitable tourism offer based on the dessert according to its potential, the demand 
in the province for real food and wine tourism and the actual tourist needs and motivations. 
Moreover, I tried to remain as objective as possible to put into practice  suggestions and 
comments in the most accurate way. In conclusion, personal skills and the competence 
acquired during my two-year degree course have proved to be essential prerequisites to 
developing the theme of tourism in English, incorporating sociological, historical and 
economic aspects.
13 
CHAPTER ONE 
The definition, historical evolution and transversal nature of oenogastronomic tourism. 
 
 
 
 
 
1.1 The connection between oenogastronomy and tourism 
 
Everyone needs to eat and clearly neither locals nor tourists are excluded from this 
everyday necessity. Indeed food and drink have formed part of tourism since the very 
beginning, being inextricably linked in two ways: principally, and obviously, as a physical 
necessity, and, more recently, as an outstanding stimulus for embodying cultural and 
individual identity. Hence, we can affirm that there has always been a connection between 
oenogastronomy and travelling, but only in recent years has it been recognised in terms of 
tourism. In other words, what is new and most important now is that the eternally close 
relationship between food and tourism has been recently formalised in the new concept of 
“ oe no g a stronomi c touris m .” 
Indeed, this new trend is now widespread and is the result of the ever-changing 
attitudes of tourists. Formerly, food and drink were considered one of those common aspects 
of any daily routine, and, in some cases, a mere supplementary interest. Whereas, now, they 
have become a vital component of the exploration of a given destination which travellers 
more and more often select for its oenogastronomy importance. In this way, a sea-change in 
pra c ti c e a nd c ult ure is e n c a psul a ted. This do e sn’t mea n that food a nd d rink ha ve c ha n g e d, but 
rather that they have become a push factor to travel and part of tourism in their own right 
thanks to the evolutio n of the g lobal c on c e pt a nd pe ople’ s e volvi n g a tt it ud e s. I n f a c t, since the 
early years of the 19th century, Brillat-Savarin wrote at the beginning of his The Physiology 
of Taste: 
The pleasure of the table belongs to all ages, to all conditions, to all countries, 
and to all areas; it mingles with all other pleasures, and remains at last to 
console us for their departure. [...] At a later day when the human species was 
more widely extended, the wary traveller used to sit at such boards and tell what 
he had seen in foreign lands. Thus hospitality was produced, and its rights were
14 
recognized everywhere. There was never any one so ferocious as not to respect 
him who had partaken of his bread and salt.
1
 
In recent years, there is empirical evidence that this trend is coming to feature centrally, as 
part of the leisure and pleasure trip and has itself become part of the experience. Tourists are 
consciously seeking out food experiences. Hence, tourism now possesses a powerful tool as 
the appearance of food and drink in this field means that this element is now included in travel 
packages as a matter of course. We are also witnessing a connection and overlapping between 
holiday experiences and everyday life, a totally fresh dimension in the tourism arena, due to 
changing attitudes towards the practice of travel. 
At this point, it is critical to introduce the areas of which oenogastronomy has 
nowadays become a significant component and a key aspect of tourism. Undoubtedly the 
main motivation to visit a destination involves more often than not its cultural aspects. Not 
only is this the principal reason now, but it was also the initial reason why people travelled, as 
evidenced by the Grand tour, when in the 19th century members of richer families travelled 
around Europe looking for cultural experiences. As a matter of fact, oenogastronomy and 
culture have become inextricably linked. Food and drink are related not only as substances 
composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water eaten and drunk for nutritional purposes, 
but people have become aware that they bear both cultural and traditional significances. They 
are furthermore an effective means to gain an insight, through the five senses, into another 
culture, and a way to perceive local distinctiveness because they represent the authentic 
expression of a different people's way of life. In addition, oenogastronomy often coincides 
with the tourist ’s idea o f a holi da y : a n idea that e mbra c e s man y dif fe r e nt c omponents, not only culture, history and social aspects, but also the natural environment and the output of a 
particular area. In short, it is an essential constituent both of tourism and consumption. 
There are other factors to explore in greater depth that contribute to establishing the 
relationship existing between tourism and oenogastronomy, or, even better, that explain the 
reason why food and drink products have become an attraction for a destination. First, they 
are closely linked with the place of origin, and as such, they are still considered to be unique 
to that place. So, tourists feel that they really discover and enjoy them only in loco rather than 
by reading travel magazines or books. In this case, it is a question of authenticity, in terms of 
tasting local products as well as experiencing certain social aspects. Secondly, travelling and 
tourism a re a for m of leisure that invol ve s “ g e tt ing a w a y f rom it a ll ” in t ha t whe n we g o on holiday, we usually engage in interesting activities, learning new things and even taking risks. 
As well as the so-called "rest and recuperation" benefits we hope to gain from a holiday, it 
also gives us the opportunity to reform or reassess our identity; namely, we are offered a 
chance to explore personal and cultural meanings and to re-examine ourselves. In fact, when 
                                                           
1
 Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1826), Physiologie du goût, où méditations de gastronomie transcendante; 
ouvrage théorique, historique et à l’ordre du jour, dédié auxgastronome parisiens ... (Paris: Sautelet et Cie).
15 
on holiday, we leave all worries behind us, thus we enjoy even aspects of ourselves that are 
obscured in our everyday lives. In this context too, food and drink can play a distinctive role. 
By way of example, they have created some tailored made holidays that involve activities 
designed to create emotional and perceptual growth, thus leading to personal change; Janet 
C hrz a n, P h. D. c a ndida te in P e nn’s Anthr opolog y D e pa rtme nt a nd re se a rc h e r on diet a r y change and travel, has organised cooking-school holidays focused on healthy living in order 
to teach new ways to promote health through food. In her preliminary surveys, holiday 
makers affirmed that travel was their primary means of experiencing different food habits and 
promoting health care. 
Overall, the basic driving force in this new trend in tourism is experience. As Quan 
and Wang noted, oenogastronomy is the element that conveys unique experience and 
enjoyment to travellers. Once we arrive at our destination, food and drink are the primary 
e x pe rie nc e sou g ht, be c a u se the y “ a l low a n indi vidual to e x pe rie nc e the “ Ot he r” on a se nso r y leve l, a nd not just a n int e ll e c tual one . ”
2
 Clearly, the sensory features of food and drink enable 
tourists to have experiences at a deeper level; by ingesting food that represents another 
culture, tourists can feel that they are absorbing that culture, meaning that they gain a 
profound understanding by living the culture of a place. In the same way that tourism may be 
considered as an act of consumption, so oenogastronomic tourism allows us to consume the 
very essence of a place, which embraces both the local cuisine and the way local food is 
cooked. Italo Calvino offers a clear explanation of this phenomenon:
3
 
Il vero viaggio, in quanto introiezione d’un “fuori” diverso dal nostro abituale, 
implica un cambiamento totale dell’alimentazione, un inghiottire il paese 
visitato, nella sua fauna e flora e nella sua cultura (non solo le diverse pratiche 
della cucina e del condimento ma l’uso dei diversi strumenti con cui si schiaccia 
la farina o si rimesta il paiolo), facendolo passare per le labbra e l’esofago. 
Questo è il solo modo di viaggiare che abbia un senso oggigiorno, quando tutto 
ciò che è visibile lo puoi vedere anche alla televisione senza muoverti dalla tua 
poltrona (…).
4
  
 Such food and drink can be tasted in different locations, like festivals, restaurants, 
grocery stores, cooking classes, cooking shows, food and drink events and tours, and they can 
be private or public, ordinary or festive, domestic or commercial. Besides, they offer a 
                                                           
2
 L u c y M. L o n g ( 1 9 9 8 ) , “ C u l in ar y to u r is m : a f o lk lo r is t ic p er s p ec tiv e o n ea ti n g an d o th e r n ess , ” i n Journal of 
Southern Folklore, 55(30): 181 –203. 
3
 Italo Calvino (2006), Sotto il sole giaguaro (Milano: Mondadori), 33. 
4
 T r an s lated , “ T h e tr u e j o u r n ey , as t h e in tr o j ec tio n o f an " o u ts id e" d if f er en t from our normal one, implies a 
complete change of nutrition, a digesting of the visited country - its fauna and flora and its culture (not only the 
different culinary practices and condiments but the different implements used to grind the flour or stir the pot) - 
making it pass between the lips and down the oesophagus. This is the only kind of travel that has a meaning 
n o w ad a y s , w h e n ev er y th in g v is ib le y o u ca n s ee o n te lev i s io n w it h o u t r is i n g f r o m y o u r ea s y c h air . ”, r etr iev ed from http://www.ruanyifeng.com/calvino.2010.11/under_the_jaguar_sun.html (last visit 25/12/12).
16 
tangible basis on which other areas of culture, for instance religion, artistic traditions, history 
and customs, can be seen and understood. Furthermore, Viganò argues that, as an alternative 
to common leisure activities, food and wine tasting has even become a cultural practice in its 
own rig ht; in fa c t, food a nd drink ha ve the powe r to e voke strong fe e li ng s of “ ti me, plac e a nd 
memor y ” , whic h a re va lu e s in the incr e a sin g d a n ge r of be in g lost in “ a n e ra of h y p e rmobil it y ” in which, as Kirshenblatt-Gimblett claims, it se e ms that “ e ve r y thi ng is a v a il a ble e ve r y w he r e , a ll the tim e ” ( L on g , 2004 ).  
 
1.2 Oenogastronomic tourism through a cultural lens 
 
Yet, connecting culture with oenogastronomy is nothing new. Almost 200 years ago, 
Antonin Carême
5
, a famous chef, wrote: 
Dining has much in common with painting and music. The painter, by richness 
of colours produces works that seduce the eye and the imagination; the 
musician, by the combination of his notes, produces harmony, and the sense of 
hearing receives the sweetest sensations that melody can produce. Our culinary 
combinations are of the same nature. The gourmet’s palate and sense of smell 
receive sensations similar to those of the connoisseurs of painting and music. 
Without doubt, this relationship is reciprocal. Not only is culture the representation of the 
special attitude and way of life of a group or an individual, but it also conditions how people 
act as well as how and why they do it. The past has clearly influenced the way in which our 
contemporary food and drink practices and attitudes have evolved. Culture and way of life are 
reflected in how and what we eat and drink, and eating in turn becomes an exploration of life. 
In the same way, food and drink convey culture in the following ways: 
- The method of production, collection, use, preparation and consumption. 
- The use different people make of food and drink. 
- The place of origin of the food and drink and the type of land that produces it. 
- The associations which people attach to items of food and drink or the general principle 
of oenogastronomy. 
For these reasons and many others, oenogastronomy plays a key role in attracting 
tourists to a certain destination, showcasing its culture and national identity, although this is 
not by any means the case for all the destinations. In fact, the association of food and drink 
with tourism depends on the role of cuisine in the social culture that creates that national 
                                                           
5
 Ma g d a A n to n io li C o r ig lian o an d R o d o lf o B ag g io ( 2 0 0 2 ) , “ I talian cu li n ar y to u r i s m o n th e I n ter n et, ” in Gastronomy and Tourism, ed. J. Collen and G. Richards, Proc. of ATLAS Expert Meeting, Sondrio (Italy), 21 –
23 November 2002.
17 
identity; in other words, it relies on the extent to which oenogastronomy can carry and convey 
the culture and way of life of a place. The more food and drink expresses the uniqueness of its 
place of origin, the more it will become a suitable vehicle to attract tourists eager to 
experience it. Two examples at national level are France and Italy, in that both countries have 
always been effortlessly associated with their food and wine, thanks to, as many researchers 
argue, the assimilation of their gastronomy into their national identity. Food and wine are 
blended into the respective French and Italian cultures and are connected to the lifestyle of 
their people which confirms the importance of linking oenogastronomy and tourism. 
On the other hand, the culture of the tourist is another important factor that influences 
the choice of destination for its oenogastronomic richness. Not only is it a matter of personal 
choice and individuality, but also, and most importantly, it is a fundamental role played by the 
cultural empathy that is created once the tourist is in the context of the destination. Many 
elements are decisive in this encounter, from food habits to the number of meals per day, from 
table manners to the ingredients used.  
 
1.2.1 “We are what we eat” 
 
S uc h a c ult ura l state m e nt is manif e sted in food a n d drink c hoice s b e c a us e of pe ople’ s need to find their own identities. As the postmodern condition is characterized by an 
increasing level of personal and social insecurity, people are looking for new sources of 
identity that provide some protection in an increasingly chaotic world. Food and drink 
remains constant as one of our basic needs and, as heritage bearer par excellence, has become 
one of the most widespread indications of identity, acquiring a central role in the tourist 
experience. In this sense, we can affirm that we are what we eat, not only in a physiological 
sense, but also in a sociological and psychological sense. This is true from two points of view: 
firstly, because through what we eat and the way we eat, we forge and support our identity 
and can convey the basic aspects of our culture, as eating habits are behaviours that are 
learned and culturally bound. Secondly, when we encounter certain types of cuisine on 
holiday, our reaction is generally to try to identify with them, as oenogastronomy has become 
a significant factor in the formation of identity in postmodern societies. 
However, it is important to point out that not all tourists are ready to face this type of 
encounter. In the context of oenogastronomic tourism, the cross-strata of the different 
attitudes and approaches existing among those consuming, those providing, and those 
enabling, have several different facets. For example, there are still tourists who tend to avoid 
any contact wi th loca l c ult ure s a nd find prote c ti on in a n “ e nvironmen tal bubble” , on their travels. This condition is often created by mass tourist resorts, whose purpose is to provide a 
sort of culinary shelter for tourists who are not prepared or willing to engage in local eating
18 
and drinking habits. Here, tourists can eat the same food and drink as they would do at home 
and they make no effort to sample the local specialities. However, as this issue goes beyond 
what the present dissertation intends to examine, it is not appropriate to explore it further here. 
 
1.2.2 “Foodways” 
 
R e g a rdin g the s e a r c h fo r identit y , it would b e inc orr e c t to c laim that touri sts ’ pursuits de ve lop solel y a round food a nd drink. I n fa c t, using L u c y L on g ’s ( 2004) wor ds, a nd 
anticipating a partial definition of the phenomenon in question, tourism is strongly linked with 
the “ int e nti ona l pa rtic i pa ti on in other foodw a y s ” of the host e nvi ronme nt. Na mel y , 
oenogastronomic tourism occurs in all aspects of food, which form the network of activities 
and systems surrounding procurement, preparation, preservation, presentation, consumption, 
clean-up and conceptualisation; these activities and systems comprise all of the following 
areas: physical, economic, social, cultural, spiritual, communicative and aesthetic. Foodways 
are associated with the food habits of a particular society or individuals that can be linked 
with indi viduals’ nutrit ional int a ke , a s w e ll a s soc io -economic, environmental and cultural 
factors. Some authors, like anthropologist Mary Douglas, claim that our way of life itself is 
based on food and drink and the meaning they bear in our society: 
A very modest life of subsistence contrasts with our own use of goods, in for 
example, the use of food. How would we be able to say all of the things we want 
to say, even just to the members of our families, about different kinds of events 
and occasions and possibilities if we did not make any difference between 
breakfast and lunch and dinner and if we made no difference between Sunday 
and weekends, and never had a different kind of meal when friends came in, and 
if Christmas Day had also to be celebrated with the same kind of food?
6
 
In this sense, the oenogastronomic tourist in search of his/her identity unavoidably 
immerses him/herself into foodways, which offer a way in to a different realm and an active 
and concrete cultural experience. In addition, the contact can sometimes be so close that 
tourism becomes part of a change factor in foodways. In fact, it is in the nature of foodways, 
a s a “ ne twork of b e ha vi ours, tra dit ions, a nd be li e fs c onc e rnin g food, ”
7
 to change constantly 
within the developing networks of regional and global economic and cultural relations. And 
tourism, both from a general and oenogastronomic point of view, as one of the most powerful 
global phenomena, has been one of the main causes of this sea change. However, this matter 
                                                           
6
 Mary Douglas (1992), “ W h y Do P eo p le W an t Go o d s ?, ” in Understanding the Enterprise Culture, ed. Shaun 
Hargreaves and Agus Ross (Edinburgh University Press), 19 –31. 
7
 D. Yo d e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) , “ Fo lk C o o k er y , ” in Folklore and Folklife: An introduction, ed. R. M. Dorson (Chicago: 
University of Chicago Press), 325.
19 
will be analysed later, when the consequences of the process of globalisation are discussed. At 
this point it is important to understand that food and drink tourism develops in all aspects of 
destination and the meeting of two cultures, being that of the tourist and that of the host, and 
can have important consequences for both. 
 
1.3. The role of food and drink in tourism 
 
Therefore, the role of oenogastronomy has been highlighted as a cultural element that 
can contribute to a positive image for a holiday destination which is a highly desirable 
c omponent in toda y ’s mar ke tpl a c e (Corig li a no, 2002) . Now tra ve ll e rs’ c hoice of holi da y destination is highly influenced by the plac e ’s o e noga stronomi c ri c hne ss , a nd man y a uthors have already studied the significance of the food and drink factor on holidays, both before and 
after the event. For instance, Kim and other researchers
8
 have proved that food and drink are a 
critical and substantial part of any holiday, a part that may even represent one third of tourist 
expenditure. Furthermore, these authors are expressing a widely held belief when they claim 
that “ food a nd drink a re on e of the most im porta nt e leme nts in tourist s’ d e sti na ti on se lec ti on 
and tra v e ll e rs’ de c isi on - making ” (2009 , 52). As such, many influential texts on food and 
tourism state that there is a widely held perception of oenogastronomy as a key reason to 
travel and visit a particular destination. Some even assert that food and drink tourism will 
acquire a growing importance in future. This is the case with Kim and other experts,
9
 who 
c laim that “ the de sire to tra ve l a nd taste unique a nd a uthentic dishes is be c omi ng one of the 
biggest paradigms in the tourism industry .” Meanwhile, other authors make more moderate 
assertions: for example Richards noted that tourist spend most time either on consuming local 
food and drink or deciding what and where to eat. 
Once we start to consider the role food and drink plays in tourism, it becomes easy to 
understand rather precisely why this happens. Using the categorisation advocated by Godfrey 
and Clarke, there are two types of appeal that a destination needs to satisfy the different 
requirements of tourists: the first group are the principal attractions, characterised by the 
strong e st pull ing pow e r, whic h re pre s e nt the ke y mot ivating f a c tor in the tourist ’s tra ve l 
decision process.
10
 The second group is formed by the incidental factors, which do not 
re pre s e nt the princ ipal m oti ve for tra ve l but ra th e r suppl e ment a de sti na ti on’s visi tor a ppe a l. 
As stated previously, in the European context, especially in France and Italy, oenogastronomy 
                                                           
8
 Y. G. Ki m et al. ( 2 0 0 9 ) , “ B u ild in g a Mo d el o f L o ca l Food Consumption on Trips and Holidays: A Grounded 
T h eo r y A p p r o ac h , ” in International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28 (4): 423 –431. 
9
 Y. Kim , J . Yu an , B . K. Go h & J . M. A n tu n ( 2 0 0 9 ) , “ W eb Ma r k etin g in Fo o d T o u r is m : A C o n ten t An al y s i s o f Web Sites in W est T ex as,” in Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, 7(1): 52 –64. 
10
 K. Godfrey & J. Clarke (2000), The tourism development handbook (London: Cassell).
20 
may be regarded as a principal element. For instance, drawing from a recent survey on visitor 
and non-visitor profiles of Mediterranean destinations, Italy scored higher on the appeal of 
local food than Egypt, Greece and Turkey. However, in the majority of destinations, 
oenogastronomy tends to be a supporting resource, even though it can play a fundamental 
role, particularly in destinations characterised by similar primary resources. For example, the 
mass-tourist Mediterranean destinations have based their appeal on similar key elements: sun, 
sea and sand. As a consequence, when marketing any product in a highly competitive context 
of same or similar products, artisans and manufacturers strive to distinguish their product, 
a im ing to obtain c ompetit ive a dva ntage : “ …indi vidual c ountrie s a nd re g ions a re de sp erately 
se e king “ unique ” a nd “ a uthentic” e leme nts o f c u lt ure whic h c a n dist ing ui sh them fr om their neighbours .”
11
 
Once a destination has established the importance and appeal of its oenogastronomic 
richness for potential tourists, it is vital to develop strategies that will focus on food and drink 
to market them as tourist products. As Hjalager and Richards note (2002), food and drink can 
become an important and effective identifying marker of a tourist destination. In addition, a 
de sti na ti on’s oe no g a stro nom y and food and drink consumption can be used to represent its 
distinctive character and image. To achieve that, it is vital to identify and promote a specific 
product for the market. Thus, it is essential for those involved in the marketing to know not 
only the profile of an oenogastronomic destination, but also to adopt effective marketing 
strategies which will target potential visitors by adopting successful marketing strategies. In 
fact, Frochot observes that it is possible to use pictures of food and drink to depict the cultural 
aspects of a place.
12
 As such, a destination can use oenogastronomy to be a representation of 
it s “ c ult ura l ex pe rie nc e , s tatus, c ult ura l i de nti t y , a n d c omm unica ti on” (Froc hot, 2002, 82).  
 
1.4. Tracing oenogastronomic evolution throughout history 
 
It would be pretentious to attempt to cover the whole evolution of the role played by 
food and drink throughout history. However, for the purpose of identifying the most important 
steps regarding the consumption of food and drink and its current implication in tourism, it is 
useful to understand the extent to which the human being and oenogastronomic practices have 
influenced and changed over the centuries. We must also be aware that, as time passes, any 
cultural dimension, as oenogastronomy, on the one hand, loses some characteristics, while on 
the other, it gains others. We should acquiesce that it is a natural process and that it provides 
both benefits and disadvantages for the development of human culture. In order to give 
                                                           
11
 Greg Richards (ed) (1996), Cultural tourism in Europe, (Wallingford: CAB International). 
12
 I . Fro ch o t ( 2 0 0 3 ) , “ An a n al y s i s o f r eg io n al p o s itio n i n g a n d its as s o ciate d f o o d i m ag e s in Fre n ch Tourism 
R eg io n al B r o ch u r es,” i n Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, vol. 14, no. 3, 77 –96.