1
Introduction
Point of departure – the European context in a globalising world
The European context is hit by the globalisation process (extremely complex,
multidimensional and hard to manage). This phenomenon is characterised by an infinite
number of trends and ongoing interlinked processes that involve the political life, the
cultural dimension and the economic field. Just to mention some of this characteristic
elements might be recalled the highly economic interdependence, the compression-
extension of time and space, the ICT revolution, the cross-cutting movements and the
emerging of a multicultural society. The impact of the globalisation process in all its
dimensions makes clearly visible an increasing confusion and tension between interests,
views, values, practices and perceptions in all the fields of living and in all the areas of
the world
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. This framework certainly asks for the responsibility of the EU to produce
concrete answers to these emerging issues and trends. In this perspective, the European
Citizenship could be seen as an answer offered by the EU to the need of building up a
broader space of democracy and inclusiveness in a globalising world.
In this context, the Treaty of Maastricht institutionalised a legally-based Citizenship
of the Union, giving rights and opportunities to the European citizens, all in view of
realising “a closer union among the peoples of Europe
2
”.
It was an important momentum in the European citizenship building process.
However the Eurobarometer
3
findings show a clear decreased sense of belonging to the
European Union and mixed outcomes between EU’s attempts to realise a more citizens’
oriented Union on the one hand and a certain reject of EU actions on the other hand. How
to bridge this gap? Many questions emerge. How to connect the efforts coming from the
Union to the real life of its citizens? How to link theory with practise, the legal and
institutional framework with the daily reality? How to define an EU answer to the
globalising challenges? And finally, what is the role of education in this
Europeanisation vs globalisation debate? Those are the major challenges this thesis will
address, in particular the prominent tool of education and education governance in the
EU context.
Topic and argument of thesis
The major purpose of the thesis is to point out the relevance that education plays in
building the European Citizenship concretely.
1
A very good presentation of this complex context is given by the ILO, A Fair Globalisation:
Creating Opportunities for All, World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalisation,
February 2004, part I (p. 3-11), part II (p. 12-51)
2
Article 2, Treaty of Maastricht, 1992
3
European Commission (Directorate-General for Communication), Flash Eurobarometer 294 –
European Union Citizenship – analytical report, October 2010
2
In fact, on the one hand the EU has invested resources to promote the EU
Citizenship building, on the other hand instead is recognisable the decreased feeling of
belonging in the EU.
Taking in consideration the seemingly paradoxical situation of the current European
integration, the objective still remains to achieve a better Union, more democratic and
inclusive, in order to answer to the challenges coming from globalisation and
interdependence. However, the inputs in this path should not only come from above (the
European level) but even from below. European citizens are said to be shaping actors in
dealing with global threats and global challenges. The thesis will argue that the European
citizens can take advantage from a favourable legal framework and the European
Citizenship provides an important and innovative potential tool to give voice to them, in
order to bridge the deficit of legitimacy of the European Union, but first of all to give
possibilities and better democratic answers to people.
However, still today remains the “perception of the EU as a slow, non transparent
administration with complex decision making procedures, which shows a lack of
radiation, determination and vigour at vital moments of political decision-making [...] for
many politicians Europe remains a distant subject, sometimes a scapegoat for unpopular
measures but mainly an important financial source for national dossiers
4
”.
In short, the European Citizenship is legally established but probably is not yet built.
In the thesis we will analyse and assess the importance of education and education
governance in the EU citizenship building.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is divided in two parts: the first part tries to analyse concepts in a
theoretical and conceptual framework. In a first chapter is analysed the concept of
citizenship and its development through the years. In this path is also presented the
concept of the EU Citizenship. A second section of the conceptual framework is devoted
to the education and governance concepts, functionally to the complete presentation of
the thesis’ argument.
The second part of thesis is dedicated to a policy analysis in the European context
concerning the governance of education: herein concepts are put in practise to see how
they work in different contexts and different policy actions, with the purpose to pull out
the key elements able to promote and conduct a genuine governance of education with the
specific perspective of citizenship building.
Finally, text will end with conclusions, and trying to open a view on what could be
the future development of the European Citizenship building.
4
Bekemans L., The Idea and Practice of Europe in a Globalising World: Reality and
Responsibility, in Peace Human Rights, vol 1/2005, Padua, p.121-133
PART I
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
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Chapter 1_The Concept of Citizenship: a dynamic process
1.1_ Base and elements of Citizenship
Defining the concept of citizenship is a necessary step to develop the argument of
education to citizenship. Analysing this concept in its major key characteristics and
developments helps to contextualise the issues and opportunities at stake in the current
globalisation process. The analysis taken in this thesis starts from the so called
“Westphalian Citizenship” and ends with the presentation of a human rights-based
approach and the related “Citizenship as the tree of citizenships
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”. This first section is the
starting point to understand the fundamental role that education plays in building the
European Citizenship. As said, although the concept of citizenship goes back to ancient
Greece, the analysis initiates from the “Westphalian Citizenship” or “State-Nation
Citizenship”.
The roots of the Westphalian system are embedded in the seventieth century,
precisely in the 1684, when the “Westphalian Treaty” was signed proposing a new
political paradigm. The “Peace of Westphalia” was concluded at the end of the Thirty
Years War of 1618-48 in Europe. Its major purpose was to establish a new political
order that would manage the international relations at that time, giving peace and stability
to the European continent. In order to realise this new international architecture, five
principles govern the relations between States: “1) the exclusive owners of sovereignty
are governments of Nation-states; 2) the sovereignty covers a well defined and limited
territorial space, i.e. the State within its borders; 3) governments are the only political
actors on the international and world levels, holding all recognised rights outside of their
territory; 4) there is no pre-existing international or legal order, outside of treaties
signed by sovereign nations and 5) war is seen as a legal and legitimate tool to solve
conflicts
6
”.
The key elements of this political paradigm show the primary and exclusive role of
the Nation-state in the international environment. In this framework, with the peculiarities
above described, the concept of citizenship emerges as the specific connection that binds
the apparatus of the Nation-state to its population, recognising to citizens rights and
duties.
In the literature several definitions of citizenship are present, some of them are
reported hereinafter.
Professor LØonce Bekemans defines citizenship as “the legal and political status
which allows the citizen to acquire some rights as an individual and some duties in
relation to a political community, as well as the ability of intervening in the collective life
5
Papisca A., Citizenship and Citizenships ad omnes includendos, in Intercultural Dialogue and
Citizenship, Translating Values into Action, A Common Project for Europeans and Their Partners,
Marsilio, Venezia, 2007, p. 465-466.
6
The five principles that rule the Westphalian system are taken from Bekemans L., Globalisation
and Inclusiveness in the EU, Edizioni Libreria Rinoceronte, Padua, 2009, p. 107
6
of a state
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”. According to Stanislaw Konopacki citizenship is “The way a citizen is
treated by polis, rights she/he posses, a real recognition of her/his freedom and equality
reflect the very nature of the polity she/he is a member” and “generally, citizenship means
a special kind of direct relationship between an individual and a political community
8
”.
Although the literature offers many definitions, a common element present in every
definition is the direct relation between the individual and the State of belonging: the
citizenship status gives the opportunity to fully participate in the decision-making
processes of the State.
Considering this essential element, it’s clear how the classical format and structure
of citizenship is thought to sustain the Westphalian principles, maintaining and
promoting the central role of the nation State. The architecture of the Nation State in the
Westaphalian order is characterised by sovereignty, nationality and great importance is
given to borders
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. In fact, national citizenship is a concept that embodies all of these
characteristics. As to sovereignty, laws that rule the attribution of citizenship are settled
by the Nation State, and consequently different regulations and different ways to obtain
citizenship between different States exist.
Generally, the main modalities to acquire a national citizenship are the “ius soli”, the
“ius sanguinis”, the “citizenship by marriage” and by “naturalisation”. The “ius soli”
(right of soil) refers to that particular mechanism by which the citizenship status is given
to all persons who were born in its territory. Another procedure valid for the conferral of
citizenship is represented by the “ius sanguinis” (right of blood), by which the subject is
entitled to have the right to obtain the same citizenship owned by the parents. In the case
of citizenship acquisition by marriage, the person is endowed of the same citizenship of
his/her wife/husband after the wedding, while in the case of citizenship by naturalisation,
instead, a person can asks for the attribution of national citizenship after an uninterrupted
period of residence in the territorial space of the State.
Regarding these general methods to acquire the legal status of citizen is nevertheless
important to remark that every State adopts different regulations concerning timing and
requirements in the attribution of citizenship. Finally, the Nation State is naturally made
up and limited by borders: citizenship is related to this reality and this well fixed space of
living. Within these areas and rules, citizenship is practised and citizens can participate in
the political life of their State of belonging. However, structural changes in the emerging
new international system are taken place.
7
Bekemans L., Globalisation and Inclusiveness in the EU, Edizioni Libreria Rinoceronte, Padua,
2009, p. 106
8
Konopacki S., European Citizenship for Inclusive Europe - In Intercultural Dialogue and
Citizenship. Translating Values into Actions. A Common Project for European and their partners,
Marsilio, Venezia, 2007, p. 69.
9
Papisca A., Riflessioni in Tema di Cittadinanza Europea e Diritti Umani, in Peace Human
Rights, vol.1/2004, Padua, p.40-41.
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1.2_A structural change: the globalisation’s impact on the traditional concept of
citizenship
The concept of citizenship is evolving itself, and this trend is visible also by the
creation of the EU Citizenship in 1992. This development is driven by the challenges and
the structural changes that have taking place in the international environment during the
last decades. Facing these new challenges, the Westphalian model is questioned and the
(related) traditional concept of citizenship seems no longer able to manage global issues.
This section will analyse how the globalisation phenomena stimulate and ask for a new
paradigm in order to deal with the globalising reality.
The Westphalian Peace was signed in 1684, a date that has a crucial importance for
every political scientist, because it symbolises the birth of the “modern national State”, as
known still today. The Westphalian Treaty and the relative attempt to create a new
continental order based on the exclusive sovereignty of the Nation State and the
fragmentation of territory brought by borders and frontiers didn’t satisfied the
expectations. In these Three centuries that divide us from the Westphalian Peace, an high
number of bloody events happened in breaking this project of “European status quo”,
both inside and outside national borders.
In the light of this consideration, if the French Revolution and the movements for
independence in 1848 might be considered as important signals of the inadequacy of the
Westphalian setting, it can be affirmed that the two world conflicts sanctioned definitely
the failure of this model. Thought to bring order in the European continent, it brought
wars, agitations and disorder. Today, the reasons that are showing the lack of the
Westphalian scheme are not wars or agitations, but most of all new structural phenomena
(the globalisation process and the increased interdependence) that influence relations
between States and question the Nation-state architecture. These ongoing processes -
characterised by trans-nationalism - make evident how the model of citizenship proposed
in the framework of the Westphalian structure is inadequate to deal with this daily reality.
According with this idea, professor Papisca states that “Il tradizionale statuto di
cittadinanza, segnato dall’orizzonte dello Stato nazionale, è da anni messo in questione
da estesi processi di mutamento strutturale, che sono trasversali alle varie realtà
nazionali e interessano direttamente, all’interno di queste, sia la sfera delle istituzioni di
governo sia la vita quotidiana delle persone e dei gruppi
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”. The role of the state, the
form of the national State and the relative classical concept of citizenship, have to be
rethought in the light of global changes brought by globalisation and interdependence.
This has to go beyond the concept of the traditional state, although this necessity is often
not recognised by politicians. The argument of this thesis sustains that education to
citizenship might contribute in strengthening the awareness of this new “scenario”, this
new paradigmatic reality we are living.
The processes that govern the reality of today are in evolution and existing
theoretical approaches are not adequate to explain this paradigmatic shifting. In according
with the view of Marco Mascia “the traditional conceptual categories – the ones used in
10
Papisca A., Riflessioni in Tema di Cittadinanza Europea e Diritti Umani, in Peace Human
Rights, vol.1/2004, Padua, p.40
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