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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
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1.1 SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT
Fossil fuels represent the main energy source used in the world by now, specially in the developed
countries, unfortunately is clear to everyone that the actual global energy system is not sustainable
for several reasons:
o Environmental impact: many studies highlighted the correlation of the CO2 concentration in
the atmosphere and the global warming effect, moreover the impact of the extraction
process may be extremely severe (e.g. the recent disaster in the Gulf of Mexico).
o Availability and economics: oil reserves are limited, several previsions has been made on how
long oil deposits will last for and the range of time is of about 50‐80 years at present rate of
consumption. Additionally the price will rise as the reserves decrease.
o Policy: most of oil deposits are in countries with highly unstable governments.
Moreover the increase in the world population associated to a general increase in individual energy
needs, especially in countries with fast developing economy produce en exponential increase in the
energy demand worldwide.
Even if a great effort has been and will be made in the development of renewable energy sources,
these are not sufficient to satisfy the energy needs.
Nuclear energy can play a key role in this circumstances: in fact in the last years the expression
‘nuclear renaissance’ has been used to describe the renewed interest of governments and electric
companies in this technology.
The main advantages of nuclear power plants compared to conventional fossil plants are:
o Lower CO
2
emissions: nuclear power plant do not produce CO
2
or greenhouse gases during
their operation. This is a good point from the environmental point of view and in the fulfilling
of Kyoto targets.
o Economical competitiveness: the production cost per kWh is one of the lowest, comparable
with coal power plants, moreover fuel cost is much more stable than oil and other fossil fuels
and anyway it counts only for about 20% of the production cost. Additionally these kind of
plants have an availability factor of more than 90%. This features are very attractive for
companies.
Nuclear plant designers highly stressed safety topics in the design of the new plants which are going
to be in operation in the next years, reaching higher safety levels compared to existing plants.
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Safety related aspects are of extreme importance for public acceptance of this technology.
The other controversial aspect is the management of the spent fuel: this highly radioactive waste
shall be safely stored for many years, on the other hand it must be noticed that the volume of fuel
per MWh produced is extremely low compared to other energy sources. Different solutions has been
proposed, form geologic disposal to transmutation. Improvement in new plants apply also to the fuel
cycle, with a better efficiency in fuel use and a reduced production of long‐life actinides.
Also in Italy the government has decided to allow again the production of electricity with nuclear
power plants, that was stopped following a referendum in 1987, after Chernobyl disaster.
The consortium of ENEL and EDF is now investing in the construction of four nuclear power plants of
new generation, the EPR technology.
This work focus on a particular aspect of a nuclear power plant: the containment system. This system
is composed of active and passive structures and components: the principal role of this system is the
confinement of radioactive material inside the reactor building, avoiding possible releases to the
external environment, at the same time it shields radiations and protects the reactor from external
hazards such as explosions and impacts of objects.
The functions of the containment system are deeply related with the safety of the plant, which is a
key aspect for the licensing process and for the public acceptance.
The scope of this object is the examination of the containment system of the EPR, which is the type
of plant already under construction in Finland, France and China and that is going to be built in Italy.
Nuclear guidelines requirements will be presented and then the compliance of EPR design with these
will be analysed.
The first chapter presents the principal safety concepts applied in the nuclear field, a general
description of the containment system and its historical evolution, from the first power plants built
to the new concepts and systems applied in the latest designs. A short explanation of the process and
the main parameters to be considered in design is given to introduce the problem also from more
technical point of view.
The second chapter deals with international guidelines and requirements which this system shall
comply with: IAEA guidelines, EUR requirements and ASN/GRS guidelines.
The third chapter goes through EPR containment system, with a presentation of systems and
structures involved with a description of their technical and functional features. A presentation of
other solutions used in containment system of generation III+ power plants is also given.
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1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES IN NUCLEAR SAFETY
Nuclear power plants are some of the most sophisticated and complex energy systems ever
designed, moreover risks related to their operation are high because of the possible radioactive
released to the environment if all safety barriers fail.
From the safety point of view, adequate shielding and confinement of radioactive materials must be
ensured at any time and in each working condition. An accurate examination of all the possible
failure modes is required to design safety systems and ensure that in any case catastrophic events
are avoided. Safety systems can be intrinsic, passive or active: intrinsic safety systems are such that
any deviation from normal operation is contrasted by the natural physic behavior of the system
passive systems don’t need an external energy source to perform their function (i.e. they rely on
gravity, natural convection, etc.) while active systems are all the systems which need an external
energy input for their activation and operation.
The basic concepts of nuclear safety are widely accepted worldwide and implemented in design and
operation of nuclear power plants, these are the concepts of defense in depth, redundancy,
diversification, physical separation, the fail safe principle and the concept of multiple barriers.
1.2.1 DEFENCE IN DEPTH CONCEPT
Defence in depth concept consists in the awareness that failures and errors may occur in the lifetime
of a plant, and that successive lines of defence are necessary to cope with them. Defence in depth is
implemented through design and operation to provide a graded protection against a wide variety of
transients, incidents and accidents, including equipment failures and human errors within the plant
and events initiated outside the plant.
The defence in depth concept comprises five levels:
1. first level: prevention. Provisions shall be implemented to prevent departures from normal
operation through a combination of intrinsic safety and design features, conservative safety
margins and quality assurance in design, construction and operation;
2. second level: detection. Measure are taken to detect any deviation from normal operation,
protection devices which make possible to detect and correct the effects of deviations from
normal operation or the effects of system failures are provided to ensure the integrity of the
fuel cladding and of the Reactor Coolant Pressure Boundary (RCPB);
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3. third level: protection. Systems and measures used to cope with incidents and prevent their
evolution into severe accidents by providing safeguard systems, protection devices and
operating procedures which make possible to control the consequences of incidents that
may occur;
4. fourth level: control of severe accident conditions. Provisions implemented to preserve the
integrity of the containment and enabling the control of severe accidents. Accident
management may not be used to excuse design deficiencies at prior levels;
5. fifth level: mitigation. Implementation of actions to limit the radiological consequences of
potential releases of radioactive materials that may result from accident conditions aimed to
protect the public, by providing measures for emergency control on‐ and off‐site.
1.2.2 REDUNDANCY
Redundancy requires having more than one item to perform the same function so that if one fails
there is a backup, typically two to four component or systems are installed in parallel. This ensures
that a safety system is always capable to perform its safety function.
1.2.3 DIVERSIFICATION
The same safety function shall be performed by two or more systems based on different working
principles or supplied by different energy sources: this principle protects from the possibility that
redundant systems can fail for a common cause. For instance, reactor shut down can be done with
control roads or with injection of borated water.
1.2.4 PHYSICAL SEPARATION
Systems and components which perform the same safety function must be located in different places
and/or divided by physical barriers to avoid a simultaneous failure due for example to a fire or an
impact of an heavy object in one zone of the plant.
1.2.5 “FAIL‐SAFE” PRINCIPLE
Systems and components are designed in such a way to automatically move in their safer position in
case of failure.
1.2.6 MULTIPLE BARRIERS
Several successive physical barriers for the confinement of radioactive material are put in place. For
water reactors at the barriers confining the fission products are typically:
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1. the fuel matrix
1
;
2. the fuel cladding;
3. the boundary of the reactor coolant system;
4. the containment system.
The public and the environment are protected primarily by means of these barriers, which may serve
operational and safety purposes or safety purposes only. The defence in depth concept applies to the
protection of their integrity against internal and external events that may jeopardize them.
1
In some cases fuel matrix and cladding are considered as a unique barrier: in this case redundant barriers are three, but
it’s just matter of definitions.
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1.3 CONTAINMENT SYSTEM: HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
Many radioactive products are contained inside nuclear power plants and provisions shall be taken to
avoid their release to the environment.
In accordance with the concept of defence in depth, an adequate number of barriers shall be
foreseen to ensure that an extremely low quantity of radioactive materials are released to the
environment either under normal or incidental conditions that may be a consequence of ruptures or
failures in the plant. These barriers are listed in the previous paragraph (multiple barriers), the
subject of this work is the last barrier, the containment, with a more specific focus on the features
regarding pressurized water reactors.
The need for a safety containment was clearly underlined since the early development of the civil use
of the nuclear energy, as stated in 10 CFR 50 appendix A:
Criterion 50‐‐Containment design basis. The reactor containment
structure, including access openings, penetrations, and the
containment heat removal system shall be designed so that the
containment structure and its internal compartments can
accommodate, without exceeding the design leakage rate and with
sufficient margin, the calculated pressure and temperature
conditions resulting from any loss‐of‐coolant accident. This margin
shall reflect consideration of (1) the effects of potential energy
sources which have not been included in the determination of the
peak conditions, such as energy in steam generators and as required
by § 50.44 energy from metal‐water and other chemical reactions
that may result from degradation but not total failure of emergency
core cooling functioning, (2) the limited experience and experimental
data available for defining accident phenomena and containment
responses, and (3) the conservatism of the calculational model and
input parameters.
The containment was initially considered as a passive system, whose role was determinant in the
extremely unlikely case of an accident that would jeopardize the integrity of the other barriers
previously indicated. The most significant example is the loss of coolant accident (LOCA) caused by a
rupture in the primary coolant circuit.
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Containment was initially designed to cope with internal hazards, in particular a large LOCA was
assumed as the worse possible accident and then as a design basis accident.
Anyway, the presence of the containment doesn’t allow to a relaxation of the other measures for
safety and prevention which are fundamental for safety and for the correct application of the
concept of defense in depth.
Later active systems were introduced inside containment to perform safety functions in case of
accident thus limiting the severity of the induced stress conditions and consequentially reducing the
release of radioactive substances to the external environment. Example of these systems are
spraying systems inside and outside containment, filtration systems, steam suppression pools, ice
condensers, etc.
At this point is no more correct to refer to a container, but rather to a containment system.
Later on, it became clear that in order to increase safety it was necessary to consider not only the
risks related to the impact of the plant on the environment, but also the possible impacts of the
external environment on the system.
In this sense containment system is a component particularly significant, being on one side a
measure to reduce to the maximum extent possible the releases to the external environment and on
the other side a protection of the nuclear island from external hazards due to natural events (strong
wind, flooding..) or human activities (airplane crash, explosions).
The very well known accidents of Three Miles Island (TMI) and Chernobyl are a clear demonstration
of the importance of this safety provision: the containment system of TMI, even if not designed to
withstand the occurrence of fusion of the core, was able to resist under those load conditions and
limited consistently the radioactive releases to the environment. In Chernobyl, instead, which was
basically without containment, releases to the environment were extremely high and caused a large
contamination and high collective doses.
These events outlined also that the fusion of the core, considered till that point an event almost
impossible, was an occurrence clearly not negligible and for this reason an adequate revision of the
whole safety philosophy was necessary. For what concerns the containment system, this revision
brought to modifications that could allow the safeguard of the environment even after severe
accidents with a consistent damage to the reactor core.
A substantial agreement can be observed on the basic design requirements of the containment
systems of the nuclear power plants in the Occidental countries, both for normal operation working
conditions and for incidental conditions.
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Here the definitions of severe accident (SA) and design basis accident or condition (DBA or DBC) must
be introduced, which will be used in the rest of the document. Nuclear power plants are designed to
withstand load conditions derived from possible accidents that may occur, accidents are divided into
two main categories: severe accidents and design basis conditions relying on the frequency of their
occurrence.
Design basis conditions are, as stated in EUR documents, Normal Operation, Incident and Accident
Conditions of internal origin for which the plant is designed according to established design criteria
and conservative methodology. The plant shall be able to keep working safely during the accident or
restart without problems when the failure has been repaired; earthquakes, pipe breaks and airplane
crash lead to this category.
Severe accidents are events extremely unlikely to occur (probability less than 10
‐6
yr
‐1
), for them EUR
states: a specific set of accident sequences that goes beyond DBA, to be selected on deterministic and
probabilistic basis and including: Complex Sequences and Severe Accidents. The plant is not required
to be operable after such accidents, but it shall be demonstrated that no severe consequences for
personnel and public occur.
For each branch of reactor technology, systems are almost the same wherever in the world, this is
also due to the fact that only a small number of companies in the world provide the nuclear island:
AREVA, Westinghouse, Siemens, General Electric, Toshiba and Mitsubishi are the main. Containment
systems are instead quite often designed by different architect engineers ( Gibbs & Hill, EDF
Tractebel, Ebasco and others) and the consequence is that quite different containment systems are
present even for the same kind of reactor, even if all of them have the same design philosophy.
In general containment systems can be divided into the following main categories:
a. Full pressure containment systems;
b. Containment systems with provisions for pressure suppression;
c. Subatmospheric pressure containment systems.
The first solution is mainly used for PWRs, the second one has application both for PWRs and BWRs,
while the third one is more specific for CANDU.
A small description of the most common kind of containment system is reported hereafter, focusing
on the ones used for pressurized water reactors.
A very intense research activity has been done and it is currently performed to reduce risks due to
the use of nuclear energy and the social acceptance of this energy source. Fundamental trend lines
are oriented to further reduce the frequency of occurrence of severe accidents avoiding them ‘by
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design’ and to enhance containment systems making it able to withstand the loads caused by severe
accidents with fusion of the core.
In general, full pressure containment systems are simpler, but large free volumes are required to
limit the overpressurization of the internal environment in accidental sequences. Containments
provided with steam suppression systems allow a significant volume reduction, but they are more
complicated. The choice is actually strongly influenced by economic considerations, view that all
solutions are in principle adequate from the safety point of view.
Among the newest containment systems, two different tendencies may be underlined:
Westinghouse with the project of the AP‐1000 has enhanced to the maximum extent the use of
passive and intrinsic safety systems aiming to a revolution of the current design, AREVA with the
project of the EPR has used a more evolutionary philosophy to design a new plant able to ensure
such low radioactive releases in any plant conditions that evacuation of the population is never
required even in the most severe accidental occurrence.
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1.3.1 FULL PRESSURE DRY CONTAINMENT SYSTEM
In this concept (figure 1) the primary containment envelope is a steel shell or a concrete building
with a steel liner that encompasses all components of the reactor coolant system under primary
pressure. It is able to withstand the increases in pressure and temperature that occur in the event of
any design basis accident, especially a LOCA. The atmospheric pressure in the containment envelope
is usually maintained at a substantial negative gauge pressure during normal operations.
Energy management in the building can be accomplished by an air cooler system or by a water spray
system. In addition, the free volume of the containment and the structural heat sinks are used to
limit peak pressures and temperatures in postulated accidental conditions.
Figure 1: schematic diagram of a full pressure dry containment for a PWR: 1, containment; 2, containment
spray system; 3, filtered air discharge system; 4, liner