2
Significance of the study
Nurses and other health professionals are becoming increasingly aware of
the need for greater knowledge in the area of grief and bereavement as well as the
need for active support of the bereaved person. The morbidity and mortality rates of
the bereaved person are greater than the general population, ongoing psychosocial
problems may impact upon the ability of the bereaved person to function in the work
place and the personal realm to a satisfactory level, as well as ongoing relationship
and interfamily problems may adversely affect the bereaved person (Baker, 1987;
Buchanan, Geubtner, & Snyder, 1996; Burgess, 1992; Coolican, Vassar, & Grogan,
1989; G. Costello, 1995; Davidhizar & Kirk, 1993; Davies, 1991; Feinstein &
Ramatowski, 1995; Fraser & Atkins, 1990; Keenan, 1995; Kiger, 1994; McQuay,
1995; Thayre, 1995). It is therefore imperative that nurses and other health
professionals undertake thanatological research to help inform their practice.
The sudden and unexpected death of a partner is an area that is often
difficult to study due to the affected population being hidden in the overall population
of bereaved people. If a person dies following a protracted illness then the relatives
and friends are more easily accessible due to the ongoing contact that they have
had with health professionals, hospitals or hospices. It is therefore much easier to
access bereaved people following a protracted illness than a relative of a person
who has died outside of a hospital or been brought in dead to an Emergency
Department (Davies, 1991; Harte-Barry, 1997; McQuay, 1995; Tye, 1993).
A literature search revealed that there is very little published research on the
experiences of the surviving person after the unanticipated sudden death of a
partner. The studies that do describe the impact that death has upon the surviving
partner are generally concerned with a death that has been related to suicide,
homicide, chronic disease or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
(Brabant, Forsyth, & Melancon, 1992; Bucholz, 2002; Levy, 1991; Parkes, 1987;
Quigley & Schatz, 1999; Range & Niss, 1990; Richmond & Ross, 1994; Smith,
Mitchell, Bruno, & Constatino, 1995; Speck, 1985; Zisook, Chentsova-Dutton, &
Shuchter, 1998).
The majority of thanatological studies which involve the surviving partner are
retrospective surveys utilising quantitative methodologies following an anticipated
death (Anderson, 2000; Bowling & Windsor, 1995; Caserta & Lund, 1996; Chen et
al., 1999; Coolican et al., 1989; Davis & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001a; Gilliland &
Fleming, 1997; Hogan et al., 2001; Hyrkas, Kaunonen, & Paunonen, 1997; Jagger &
3
Sutton, 1991; Kirschling & McBride, 1989; Levy, 1991; Middleton, Burnett, Raphael,
& Martinek, 1996; Prigerson, Bierhals et al., 1997; Prigerson, Maciejewski, &
Rosenheck, 2000; Quigley & Schatz, 1999; Schneider, Sledge, Shuchter, & Zisook,
1996; W. Stroebe, Stroebe, Abakoumkin, & Schut, 1996; Sweeting & Gilhooly, 1990;
Zisook & Shuchter, 1991; Zisook, Shuchter, Irwin et al., 1994). These studies are
often based upon hospice and palliative care experiences whereby the surviving
partner’s bereavement is recognized and supported by family and friends who may
have had time to adjust to the impending death (Sanguesa, 1995). In addition to
this support, the surviving partner may have had access to institutionally based
bereavement counsellors, social workers or trained volunteers, with whom they may
have developed some level of rapport.
The surviving partner of a sudden death does not have time to prepare for
this unanticipated death, nor the time to develop a prepared support network
(Sanguesa, 1995). It has been demonstrated that surviving partners of a person
who has died suddenly are often neglected by family and friends who are also
inadequately prepared to help (Anderson, 2000; Detmer & Lamberti, 1991;
Rosenblatt, 1994; Sanguesa, 1995; Shuchter & Zisook, 1993). Confounding this
lack of personal support is that the institutional support that is available (e.g. the
Coronial Enquiries Section bereavement support services) may not be familiar to the
surviving partner, and may be under-utilised or not accessed at all.
It is only over the past few years that qualitative methodologies have been
used to describe grief and bereavement (Chethik, 2000; J. Costello & Kendrick,
2000; Daggett, 1999; Duke, 1998; Elliott, 1999; Harte-Barry, 1997; Horacek, 1995).
Phenomenology has been a popular choice for qualitative research due to the use of
face-to-face interviews and the intimate nature of the data analysis resulting in a rich
and deep description of the phenomena (Clark, 1993; Daggett, 1999; Harte-Barry,
1997; Neimeyer, Prigerson, & Davies, 2002; Margaret Stroebe, 2001; M Stroebe &
Schut, 1999; Zisook, Shuchter, Sledge, Paulus, & Judd, 1994).
The other significant component of this study is that it included both men and
women. Studies in this field of sudden death have mainly concentrated on the effect
of bereavement upon the widow (Davies, 1991; Remondet & Hansson, 1987;
Robinson, 1995; Sable, 1991). This is not surprising considering that it is
statistically less common for a male to outlive his female partner. The
demographics of conjugal bereavement are heavily weighted towards the female
due to two reasons, the first being that the majority of women are partnered with
men who are older, and the second is due to the biological fact that women
4
generally outlive men by an average of five years (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2002b). In Australia, at every age men are more likely to die than women, with the
largest differences in the 15-34 years age group where male death rates are three
times higher than female death rates (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997). In the
2001 Australian census the distribution of widowed people was 738,397 (80%)
women and 181,507 (20%) men (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002b).
Kirschling & McBride (1989) who studied age and gender differences in
widowhood found that women reported greater somatization, loss of control, and
rumination than did the men. The men displayed greater levels of denial by
internalising their pain, which may be due to the socialisation of the machismo role
(1989). This research is supported by Stroebe (1998) who reported that women are
more likely to seek social support following the death of their partner, whereas men
are more likely to rely upon their own resources and not acknowledge the depth of
feeling that they experience following their partner’s death. Failure to acknowledge
the nature and extent of their emotional responses, for example: hurt, anger and
confusion, may mean that men do not talk to family and friends and do not access
formal or informal counselling sessions (M Stroebe, 1998).
Stroebe (1998) also found that following the death of their partner, men have
higher mortality rates, take longer to ‘recover’ in terms of feeling ‘normal again’,
have higher rates of mental illness, and suffer higher rates of physical illness than
do women. Stroebe concluded that men were more vulnerable to health problems
than women were, following the death of their partners. These findings have
implications to all health and caring professionals, in that men may need to be more
actively targeted for follow up bereavement support, than is currently acknowledged.
The gender imbalance has started to be rectified in the past few years with
more researchers concentrating on widowers as well as researching gender
differences (Chen et al., 1999; Daggett, 1999; Hyrkas et al., 1997; Kaunonen,
Tarkka, Paunonen, & Laippala, 1999; Kirschling & McBride, 1989; Klein, 2000;
Schneider et al., 1996; Tudiver et al., 1995; Zisook, Paulus, Shuchter, & Judd,
1997).
Throughout the thesis previous studies are included to assist the reader to
place the findings of this study into context. Given that most of the studies that have
been cited are large quantitative research projects, a direct comparison with the
findings of this thesis cannot be made. However, it is useful to place the findings of
this thesis into the larger arena of thanatological research.
5
Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study was to explore the phenomenon of grief and its
impact upon men and women who had experienced the sudden unanticipated death
of their partner. It included the meaning of grief, and how it is manifested in their
everyday lives. The study will lead to a greater understanding of grief from the
survivor’s perspective in this previously under described group.
The research question and objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To explore the meaning of grief for men and women who experience the
sudden unanticipated death of his or her partner;
2. To describe how grief is manifested for them in their everyday life;
3. To identify if there are common themes in the survivor’s experiences;
4. To compare their experiences with other research and literature related
to this area;
5. To formulate recommendations for the appropriate support and
counselling for men and women who have experienced the sudden death
of a partner.
It is hoped that nurses and other health professionals who deal with the
newly bereaved, may gain a greater insight and understanding into the way people
live with this type of loss in order to provide appropriate health care and empathetic
counselling, support and education.
Definition of terms
Sudden death: an unexpected death that occurs with either a brief warning or no
warning, is not anticipated, and results in either the person dying immediately
following the cause or within a short time frame without regaining consciousness.
Death informing: the process of informing a surviving partner (and family and close
friends) of the death of their partner.
Structure of the thesis
Chapter Two is dedicated to introducing Husserlian phenomenological
research from a conceptual and philosophical view with Chapter Three describing
6
how a methodological process was used to achieve a Husserlian phenomenological
outcome. Chapter Four gives a brief outline of the individual participants’ story. The
six interpretive themes that were developed are detailed in separate dedicated
chapters, which are:
Relationship to one’s self
• The surviving partner’s relationship with self whilst experiencing a
shattered life
• The surviving partner’s relationship with self whilst experiencing the
reclamation of his or her life
Relationship to others
• The surviving partner’s relationship with others whilst experiencing
temporary dependence on and receiving support from others
• The surviving partner’s relationship with others while regaining
independence
Relationship to world
• The surviving partner’s relationship with the world whilst experiencing
the maze of officialdom
• The surviving partner’s relationship with the world whilst experiencing
the emergence of a new life order
At the end of each sub theme section, the findings of this research project
are placed into context with the existing thanatological research and literature.
However not all sub themes elicited equivalent research, which resulted in the
previous research and literature being included at the end of a theme.
Chapter Eleven is devoted to an overview of the study and the development
of a summation of patterns that have emerged from the participants’ experiences.
Chapter Twelve is dedicated to creating recommendations for those professionals
who are involved in the care of the bereaved person and opportunities for future
research.
7
CHAPTER TWO
HUSSERLIAN PHENOMENOLOGY – PHILOSPHICAL
FOUNDATIONS
Small is the number of them that see with their own eyes, and feel with their own hearts.
Albert Einstein (Miller & Hrycyniak, 1996, p.207)
Introduction
The aim of this research was to describe and attempt to understand the
experience of people whose partners had died suddenly and unexpectedly. In order
to achieve this aim, Husserlian phenomenology was considered to be the most
appropriate methodology. This chapter will describe the philosophical foundations
of this phenomenological approach to research in general and nursing and
thanatological research in particular, and why Husserlian phenomenology was
chosen as methodology. A description of the phenomenological research process
will be detailed in Chapter Three.
Qualitative research methodology
Nursing researchers have increasingly utilised qualitative research
methodologies over the past quarter century (Anthony, 1996, p.69; Barkway, 2001;
Corben, 1999; Paley, 1998; Ratcliffe, 1998; Salsberry, 1989; Tatano-Beck, 1994;
Taylor, 1995). Munhill & Boyd (1993) suggest that a paradigm shift has occurred in
nursing, whereby the nursing profession has moved from the: “...medical, atomistic
causal model, to a distinct, holistic, interactive model” (p.12).
During the latter stages of the twentieth century nursing scholars began a
quest to define nursing as a distinct profession within health care with its own unique
philosophy and models of care (Van-der-Zalm, 2000). In order to capture what it is
that makes nursing practice different to other health professions, qualitative
research methodologies were often chosen over quantitative methodologies, which
had hitherto dominated health research (Van-der-Zalm, 2000). Omery (1983)
encapsulates the reasoning behind this choice:
8
What was deleted in the objective scientific experiment, the
subjective experience, was beginning to be perceived as more basic,
and real in the understanding of human knowledge and behaviour
than the codifications that the experimental researchers called data
(p.54).
Nursing researchers have increasingly used phenomenology as a
methodology of choice when attempting to discover what the people nurses care for
really experience from their own perspectives and context (Annells, 1996;
Schoenhofer, 2002; Valente & Saunders, 1997; Yegdich, 1999). Van-der-Zalm
(2000) asserted that phenomenology can provide living knowledge for nursing
practice:
The phenomenological approach has gained popularity among nurse
researchers as an alternative investigative method to those used in
the natural sciences. As more nurse scholars and nurse researchers
utilize phenomenology as a research approach, it becomes critical to
examine the implications this may have for nursing knowledge
development and for the utilization of that knowledge in practice… It
is clear that phenomenology contributes to empirical, moral,
aesthetic, personal, and socio-political knowledge development. Its
contribution is not in developing predictive and prescriptive theory,
but in revealing the nature of human experience. Although
interpretive inquiry, such as hermeneutic phenomenology, does not
prescribe action for use in clinical practice, it does influence a
thoughtful reflective attentive practice by its revealing of the
meanings of human experience (p.211).
The research topics that nursing researchers have chosen to use
phenomenological methodologies to study have often been the foundation stones of
the profession. For example LeVasseur (2002), studied the art of nursing by
interviewing nurses and using the opening question: "Tell me of your experience in
helping a patient turn a corner in his or her illness and come to see his or her
situation in a new way" (p. 14). The aim of the study was to gain understanding into
the object of nursing art, which is conceptualised: “… as a transition that the nurse
helps facilitate with a patient who has become: “…stuck in some way” (p.14).
Kralik, Koch, & Wotton (1997) used a combination of Heideggarian and
Husserlian phenomenology to gain understanding as to what they felt was important
about the nursing care that nine post surgery patients experienced. Two major
themes emerged from the interviews with the women, who described nurses as
being either engaged or detached with their nursing care.
Valente & Saunders (1997) believed that nurses should consider the full
range of research methodologies in order to find the appropriate fit:
9
Often a quantitative paradigm fits well with laboratory sciences and
economic analysis. However, clinical or behavioral science settings
often do not allow strict control over patients' differences and external
influences. If a nurse wants to examine phenomena that are
embedded in the context and a person's experience and perceptions,
then other methods are needed. Students, researchers, and
clinicians should understand, evaluate, and respect a wide array of
methodologies. For example, understanding a mother's grief at her
son's death is no more or less important than understanding cost
analysis or program evaluation (p. 9).
Phenomenology as a philosophy
The Macquarie Dictionary defines a phenomenon as: “...an appearance or
immediate object of awareness in experience,” (Delbridge, 1982, p.1297) and
phenomenology as: “...the school of German philosopher Edmund Husserl 1859-
1938, which stresses the careful description of phenomena in all domains of
experience without regard to traditional epistemological questions” (p.1297).
Husserl believed that the relation between a person’s perception and objects and
experiences was not passive, and that human consciousness actively constitutes
the objects of experience (Holstein & Gubrium, 1994). Holstein and Gubrium (1994)
claim that: “…this (phenomenology) has become foundational for the qualitative
study of reality-constituting practices...” (p.263).
Alfred Schutz (1964) argued that ordinary people reconstitute the everyday
world continuously and therefore: “The safeguarding of the subjective point of view
is the only but sufficient guarantee that the world of social reality will not be replaced
by a fictional non-existing world constructed by the scientific observer” (cited in
Holstein & Gubrium, 1994, p.263). In order to truly value an individual’s worldview
or paradigm, the researcher must suspend his or her ontological belief system.
Schutz (1964) refers to this concept as bracketing, which may reduce any bias that
the researcher could introduce due to his/her previous experience (cited in Holstein
& Gubrium, 1994, p.263).
Schutz (cited in Holstein & Gubrium, 1994) also refers to individuals having a
stock of knowledge, which the individual uses to allow them to make sense of their
experiences, derived from previous experience. Images, theories, ideas, values,
and attitudes are applied to aspects (or categories) of experience making them
meaningful, thus forming the basis of what Schutz calls typifications. Typifications
allow the individual to function within society without having to greet every
experience as a completely new experience; typifications are incomplete, open
ended, and modifiable.
10
Language is the medium in which typifications are transmitted and given
meaning (Schutz cited in Holstein & Gubrium, 1994, p.263). Language provides a
methodological framework in which an individual’s worldview is stored and can be
conveyed to another. Social interaction, therefore constructs as much as it conveys
meaning. The use of language from a phenomenological perspective is regarded as
being unique to the individual and an important part of that individual’s experience.
The last tenet of Schutz’s theories is that the majority of individuals react to
the stimulus of everyday life in similar fashions, and despite the individual giving a
unique account of their experience; commonalities will emerge (cited in Holstein &
Gubrium 1994). A phenomenological study will therefore have the underlying
assumption that there will be commonalities, with themes and categories emerging,
enabling the results to be related to and integrated with those of other
phenomenological studies that have examined the same phenomenon, according to
Eichelberger (cited in Patton, 1990).
Husserlian phenomenology
The German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) is credited with
developing a philosophy that searched for the truth by studying: “…how people
describe things and experience them through their senses” (Patton, 1990, p.69).
Husserl believed that people only understand what they experience by: “attending to
perceptions and meanings that awaken our conscious awareness…(and that)
experience must be described, explicated, and interpreted” (Patton, 1990, p.69).
A logical-positivist research study emphasises the need for the researcher to
search for purely objective results, whilst separating the observer from the
participant. When a Husserlian phenomenological approach is used, the observer
becomes the device that is used to uncover the true meaning behind the participants
experience, which becomes an inter-subjective experience for the researcher
(Tatano-Beck, 1994). Husserlian phenomenology requires the researcher to
suspend all judgements of the external world which is described as the ‘epoche’
(Paley, 1997). The epoche is not a research methodology but an attitude that must
be adopted prior to attempting the research project (Paley, 1997). Therefore the
researcher’s ‘natural attitude’ or everyday assumptions are bracketed to allow the
person’s experience to be revealed without bias or influence (Paley, 1997).
Husserl believed that the relation between a person’s perception and objects
and experiences is not passive, and that human consciousness actively constitutes
11
the objects of experience (Holstein & Gubrium, 1994). In the search for reality
constituting practices, phenomenology is a fundamental research methodology that
stays true to the participant’s reality as he or she perceive it (Holstein & Gubrium,
1994).
Husserl's ‘eidetic reduction’ is a philosophical device, the purpose of which is
to render concepts clear, explicit and complete (Paley, 1997). Husserl claimed that:
“empirical or individual intuition can be transformed into essential intuition ... which
gives the essence” (Paley, 1997, p.6). In using what Husserl refers to as ‘free
variation’ the phenomenologist strips away any extraneous material to reveal the
true object or the ‘thing itself’ (Paley, 1997, p.6).
The role of the phenomenological researcher is to discover and unveil the
‘core meaning’ of the experience for each individual. If we think of phenomenology
as taking a backward looking approach, in other words an a posteriori approach,
then the phenomenon in this study, being the sudden and the unexpected death of a
partner is the ‘cause’ from which there is a multiplicity of ‘effects’. In order to reveal
as many ‘effects’ as possible, the phenomenologist needs to explore the experience
from three domains: the relationship the person has with him or herself, with others
and the world, which includes the ethereal (heavenly) world.
Husserl's way of finding the phenomenon does not involve descriptions of
anything in the person's own words (Paley, 1997). The researcher is the person
who is responsible for entering the person’s experience and uncovering the meaning
of the experience. Participant quotations are used to provide evidence of the
thoughts, moods, and feelings and to provoke a response from the reader
(Sandelowski, 1994).
The use of intuition in order to create extended descriptions of the
experiences encountered by people who have experienced a particular
phenomenon, is a sense that many nurses use in the practice of nursing (Giguere,
2002; McCutcheon & Pincombe, 2001). Intuition is an intangible phenomenon that
is not easily defined or articulated that can give valuable insight into the experiences
of people.
Phenomenology in the practice of qualitative research
Phenomenology asks the question: “What is the structure and essence of
experience for these people?” (Patton, 1990, p.69). Phenomenological research
focuses upon the descriptions of what people experience and how they experience
12
what they experience (p.71). Husserl regarded himself as an explorer who
developed a philosophy that needed to be developed further by future
phenomenological researchers (Sawicki, 2001). Several methodological
approaches have been developed in line with phenomenological philosophical
thought in order to achieve a truly phenomenological research result. The various
methodological process’ that have been developed may differ but not the
fundamental principles of phenomenology (Tatano-Beck, 1994). Phenomenological
methodologies have been devised by researchers such as: Colaizzi, Giorgi, Van
Kaam, and van Manen, over the past thirty years.
Husserlian phenomenological research underpins, but is different from two
other qualitative research frameworks, Heuristic and Hermeneutic inquiry. Heuristic
researchers have an intense emotional and intellectual involvement with the
phenomena being studied (Patton, 1990). Hermeneutic research involves the
researcher searching for historical or environmental condition/s that places the
person’s experiences into context (Patton, 1990). The researcher has a world-view
and has their own unique interpretation of their own experiences. However when a
Husserlian phenomenological approach is used for research purposes, these
experiences are not included in the research process. Husserlian
phenomenological research methodologies therefore encourage detachment in
analysing the experience, whilst emphasising definitive descriptions of the structure
of the experience, and presenting a distillation of the structures of experience. The
participant is subsumed in the process of the descriptive analysis, resulting with the
researcher discovering the essence of experience (Patton, 1990).
The ability of a researcher to remove him or herself totally from the research
findings has been criticised as being unrealistic (LeVasseur, 2003). However, Ahern
(1999) proposed that the researcher can use reflexive bracketing whereby the
process becomes: “an iterative, reflexive journey that entails preparation, action,
evaluation, and systematic feedback about the effectiveness of the process” (Ahern,
1999, p.408).
Phenomenological research and nursing
The underlying philosophy of nursing is that people have a right to be treated
as individuals who have their own world-view, whilst being free to determine their
own destiny and develop their own potential (Munhill & Boyd, 1993). If individuals
are free to experience their own reality and describe it, then phenomenology as a
13
philosophical approach and as a research methodology can be useful in informing
nursing practice.
Annells claims that phenomenology is useful in helping nurses to explore
‘pathic understanding’ which she refers to as: “concerning human life, inclusive of
aspects like feelings/emotions, interactions, meanings, and responses; (which is)
useful for empathetic nursing action” (1999, p.6). Nurse researchers have used
phenomenology in an attempt to understand core phenomena such as empathy
(Baillie, 1996), caring (Schoenhofer, 2002), and ordinariness in nursing (Taylor,
1995).
Phenomenology and nursing philosophy have several similarities, both rely
upon interviewing, observation and the interaction with people to allow a deeper
understanding of the person’s experience (Tatano-Beck, 1994). Nurses and
phenomenologists both use the ‘self’ as an instrument of data collection, and both
philosophies require that the observer/researcher/clinician form a close relationship
with the participant/client (Tatano-Beck, 1994).
A feature of nursing research in recent times is for phenomenologists to
challenge previous research that asserts that a Husserlian phenomenological
approach has been utilised (Paley, 1997; Yegdich, 1999). Yegdich (1999)
challenged a study undertaken by Baillie (1996) titled “A phenomenological study of
the nature of empathy” claiming that Baillie had not used a truly Husserlian
phenomenological approach. Yegdich asserted that a significant number of nursing
researchers claimed to have used a Husserlian approach, but had not taken a truly
eidetic approach in the search for ‘the things themselves’ to reveal the essence of
the experience (p. 84).
Yegdich asserted that the difficulties nurses experience with empathizing
with their patients is influenced by:
Nurses' own attributes and previous personal and professional
experience impact on their ability to empathize, while knowledge
about people and how they are feeling is important for developing
empathy. Empathic feelings are difficult to generate when nurses
have no similar experience or when the patient is difficult to know or
communicate with, while further barriers include a stressful working
environment and lack of time (p. 85).
Yegdich (1999) reviewed several studies that had attempted to define
empathy as it related to nursing, and claimed that the definitions of empathy too
closely mirror that of sympathy, and that the notion of different types of empathy for
different caring professions (such as counselling and nursing) are fundamentally
14
flawed given that empathy is a universal human condition unrelated to professional
ownership or definition.
Yegdich (1999) claimed that nursing researchers who have studied empathy
are confused as to whether they are studying empathy as a phenomenon or
people’s experience of empathy. She claimed that in Baille’s (1996) study it was
unclear as to whether the phenomenological research was concerned with empathy,
or empathic people:
The material elicited is based on assumptions underlying the
question 'What is it like for you?' in contrast to critically inquiring,
'What is it like and how is it manifested?' The former questions are
apt for defining humanistic elements that focus on individuals'
uniqueness, rather than a phenomenological attitude, which attempts
to apprehend phenomena for all. We, as readers, are thus excluded
from objectively sharing the findings on the essential structure of
empathy, as they can only apply to the nurses studied (p. 90).
Yegdich (1999) reminds her readers that nursing researchers who use
phenomenology commonly use it as a research method, rather than a method of
intuition (p. 97). This results in a subjective description of the experiences that are
clouded by the researchers own experiences and assumptions. Yegdich, therefore
asserted that Bailie’s research into empathy did not reveal the hidden qualities of
empathy, instead reflected the participants’ subjective experiences, which is
inconsistent with phenomenological philosophy.
Phenomenological research and thanatology
From a philosophical point of view Husserlian phenomenology is sympathetic
to the notion of loss. People often transcend the present and through
remembrances can recall that which is absent. Husserl felt that people could
differentiate between what is temporarily not present in their life and that which is
permanently missing (Sokololowski, 2000). Husserl was comfortable with the notion
of ‘absence’ and the ability of people to imagine a concept of things that are absent
(Sokololowski, 2000).
Thanatological research involves researching a potentially vulnerable
population of people (Murray-Parkes, 1995; Rosenblatt, 1995; Skinner-Cook, 1995).
People who have a terminal illness, or are involved with a terminally ill person or
have had a significant person in their life die are considered to be a group who are
at risk of exploitation (Rosenblatt, 1995; Skinner-Cook, 1995). The researcher has
to be cognizant of the newly bereaved person’s vulnerability. Ethical considerations
15
are important in determining the most appropriate research design in order to
minimise harm when researching this group of people. What is ethical includes what
a person considers to be good, right, moral, just, proper, virtuous, and lawful
(Murray-Parkes, 1995).
Rosenblatt (1995) argues that researchers who use a phenomenological
approach and undertake intensive interviews are in a good position to be aware of
the ethical considerations when involved in thanatological research. The interviewer
can judge as to how the person is reacting to the discussion, thus allowing the
person to stop or pause the interview, or to redirect the nature or style of the
questioning. These occurrences would be documented in the researcher’s notes
and could be incorporated into the results of the study (Rosenblatt, 1995). When
quantitative methodologies are used, the researcher is not exposed to the negative
reactions to the investigative process (e.g. mailed questionnaires), the respondent
has to deal with the feelings evoked by the questionnaire alone, without the support
of the researcher.
The process of a phenomenological style interview is investigative by nature
and not actively therapeutic, however, participants in studies using this approach
often state that the interview had a positive and therapeutic effect (Skinner-Cook &
Bosley, 1995). Skinner-Cook and Bosley (1995) used a Likert style questionnaire in
order to ascertain whether previous research, which utilised a phenomenological,
open-ended interview style approach, had been stressful or therapeutic to the
participant. The results were very positive, the majority of participants stated that
the research had been useful in that the following benefits to society would be
gained by: “…educating others; promoting more open discussion about death;
preparing others for loss experiences; helping other bereaved individuals
understand their own grief; giving hope to other bereaved individuals; helping
professionals better understand grief issues” (pp. 163-164).
None of the participants who took part in the Skinner-Cook and Bosley
(1995) research project regretted having been involved in the original project, or felt
that they had been exploited. The participants mentioned personal qualities and
listening skills of the interviewer as being an important component of the interview.
The participants rated personal attributes such as empathy, warmth, caring,
kindness, gentleness, humanness, understanding, sincerity, and being non-
judgmental and interested as important qualities of an interviewer. One participant
was quoted as saying: “The researcher was open, understanding and supportive,
and not embarrassed by emotion” (p.166). Another participant stated that: “The
16
empathic, open ended style was very hopeful, including the researcher’s ability to
follow feelings and ideas which emerged through the interview process” (p.166).
These findings follow on from Patton’s (1990) point earlier, that the maturity and
personal attributes and skills of the interviewer are very important components of a
phenomenological interview style study.
Thanatological research needs to be undertaken showing sensitivity and
respect to the individuals involved. Using a phenomenological approach means that
the researcher has an open inquisitive mind, which should not contaminate the
research process. By using open-ended in-depth interviews, the researcher is
claiming a willingness to expose him or her self to the potential of vicarious
psychological trauma associated with the participants’ experiences related to death.
I believe that participants of this style of research usually value this approach
because it is seen to be a humanistic and personal approach.
Conclusion
Husserlian phenomenology was the methodology chosen for this research
study because the underlying philosophy and process are considered to be very
effective at disclosing the real experience of people who have lived through the
phenomenon such as a partner dying sudden and unexpectedly, with the
experiences grouped under the overarching experiences of grief and loss. The
experiences that are revealed form: “…the world about us that is there for us all, and
to which we ourselves none the less belong” (Husserl cited in Yegdich 1999).
In closing, it is important for the reader to understand that no theories or
models are being established as a result of this research. However, as a result of
creating the interpretive themes, experience patterns may emerge that can form the
basis of an experiential model related to the phenomenon being studied.
The participants’ experiences form the basis for increased understanding
amongst those who work with people who have experienced the loss of someone
who had formed a significant relationship with him or her. Phenomenology is one
way of helping broaden this approach in the quest to increase the knowledge base
in thanatological research.
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