A corpus-based analysis of on-line texts promoting tourist accommodation in the UK and in the USA

Evaluation is still a currently researched field, there is, therefore, no well defined and accepted definition for it. There are different synonyms for evaluation, such as stance, affect, modality and appraisal, which are used by scholars working within different linguistic traditions.
I have found Thompson and Hunston’s (2000) methods very useful for my research. In their work they prefer the term evaluation, which defines a "broad cover term for the expression of the speaker or writer’s attitude or stance towards viewpoints or feelings about the entities or propositions that he or she is talking about" (Thompson and Hunston, 2000: 5).
Interestingly, they suggest that evaluation is used for three main aims:
a. to express the writer’s opinion and the value-system of the society;
b. to construct and maintain relations between the writer and the reader;
c. to organize the discourse.

In the language of tourism these functions are definitely evident. In fact, it is interesting to analyze the value-system proposed by the writers of tourism advertising texts. Thompson and Hunston’s (2000: 6) add that "by identifying evaluation we can know the ideology of the society that has produced the text."[...]
The second function is very important: the scholars suggest that there are three main areas that characterize the relationship between the writer and the potential tourist: manipulation, hedging and politeness. The first is particularly interesting in the field of tourism: the reader’s point of view is manipulated by the advertiser, in order to get him/her to purchase the product. Moreover, conjuncts such as although, but or and are successfully used to maintain this relationship. Hedging is a typical strategy used in the language of tourism: a large number of modal verbs such as can, will or might are frequently used to "adjust the truth-value" (Thompson and Hunston, 2000:10). What is more, "evaluation is used to organize the discourse by telling the reader the 'point' of the discourse" (Thompson and Hunston, 2000: 12).
As the recognition of evaluation in a text is not an easy task, the two scholars propose some general rules to explore this complex phenomenon. Also, it is important to remember that evaluation is, conceptually, comparative, subjective and value-laden. As a consequence, the careful reader of tourism texts should focus particularly on "comparators" (adjectives but also adverbs) and on modal verbs.
As will be explained later on, there are specific lexical items connected with evaluation in the tourism texts of my corpus, such as nouns, verbs, adverbs and , above all, adjectives. The high percentage of adjectives connected with evaluation interests my study.
However, according to Thompson and Hunston (2000: 18), there are also grammatical features connected with evaluation. Here only the ones which are connected to my study will be pointed out: intensifiers, quantifiers, comparators, questions, imperatives, superlatives, emphatics. Some examples taken from my corpus are listed below (the grammatical features are in bold):
- Intensifiers: e.g. Please note there is very little free parking in Bristol; Bally's Sports Club, a private fitness centre, is located just next door;
- Quantifiers: e.g. All this and much more can be discovered within easy driving distance of Taunton; The Fort, a Grade II listed building, has many interesting features;
- Comparators: e.g. 40 metres from the subway which will take you to down town in no time; there is no better place than Ocean Drive's Avalon Hotel;
- Questions: e.g. why would anyone stay anywhere else? So why not join us;
- Imperatives: e.g. but please remember to bring your padlock to use; or enjoy Bristol’s cultural base of theatres, museums, art galleries;
- Superlatives: e.g. The nearest rail station to the hotel is West Brompton Station; We provide the best tours and entertainment packages you'll find in Sin City;
- Emphatics: e.g. you'll have a really authentic and genuine time; making the atmosphere really cool.
Hunston and Sinclair (2000: 84), also provide the evidence of some useful adjective-patterns which can be used in order to study evaluation in a text, such as:
LINK VERB+ ADJECTIVE GROUP+THAT CLAUSE or IT+ LINK VERB+ ADJECTIVE GROUP+ CLAUSE.
However, I have noticed that these patterns are not used in the tourist texts of my corpus. In addition, the two scholars have tried to explain how adjectives are used: they have found out that there are some typical affixes and suffixes that can add value to an adjective (such as well-,-able,-ible, etc.). In my corpus I have found some interesting examples, such as: available, comfortable, suitable, enjoyable, well-known, well-equipped, well-respected, incredible, accessible.
Thompson and Hunston (2000: 92) also write that "an adjective which has comparative and superlative forms, and which is sometimes or often used with a grading adverb, such as rather, fairly, more, most, so, too or very, is likely to be evaluative, though it is not necessarily so."
In tourism advertising texts an adjective in the superlative form is likely to be often used with its evaluative meaning. Thompson and Hunston (2000: 94) also stated that evaluative adjectives usually come before other adjectives if a noun is multiply pre-modified (e.g. two fabulous dining options), in that evaluation is an extrinsic quality. If the adjective indicates relatively extrinsic qualities, it is used in predicative position (e.g. the cabin is adjacent to Cinnabar Creek).
Another different approach is that of Martin’s (2000). Interestingly, he "expands the account of attitudinal meaning greatly, using the term appraisal and establishing three sub-categories: affect, judgement, and appreciation" (Thompson and Hunston, 2000: 4). Affect is considered the main category and deals with the expression of emotion, judgement deals with moral assessment of behaviour and appreciation with aesthetic assessments. (Thompson and Hunston 2000: 142).