Introduction 1
Introduction
We live in a historical period in which the need for clean technologies is
increasingly pressing. Our way of producing energy has become unsustainable and it
is scientifically proven that this is having repercussions on our planet with the global
warming phenomenon.
A special report published in 2018 by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change) claims with high accuracy that anthropical activity already raised global
temperature of about 1°C and that global warming is likely to reach 1,5°C between
2030 and 2052 at current rate. It also explains that global warming effects are non-
linear with temperature increase: an increase of 2°C will have far worse consequences
than 1,5°C. Hence, it stressed the urgency to reverse course as soon as possible, or it
might be too late.
With regard to these issues, a climate agreement was reached in 2015 at the COP 21
(Conference of the Parties). Called the Paris Agreement, this document set the goal of
limiting future increases of global temperature ‘’well below 2°C” with respect to pre-
industrial levels aiming to limit it to 1,5°C. The agreement also highlighted the need
to peak greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as soon as possible [1] and established the
need to reach net-zero emissions in the second half of the century.
Despite this, it’s difficult to imagine that our society simply decreases its energy
demand by giving up large-scale energy services. What is needed is a complete,
renewable transition to clean energy technology that provide the energy resources
we need without generating GHG or polluting air, land or water. This transition has
long since begun, but now is time to seriously tackling this challenge.
The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic has led to a drastic worldwide reduction of
economic activities and mobility during the first half of 2020, reducing global energy
demand. The impact on energy demand was generally greater for fossil fuels and
global CO2 emissions have fallen by 5,8% (about 2 Gt) in 2020, hitting the lowest level
since 2011. This was the largest ever decline in CO2 emissions and about five times
greater compared to the previous record reduction of 0,4 Gt in 2009 due to the
financial crisis [2]. But this event represents only a temporary slowdown in
emissions, in fact if there were no new lockdowns, the estimates on energy demand
and therefore on greenhouse gas emissions already foresee a rebound effect for 2021
[3] that will lead to the recovery of a large part of the emissions avoided last year.
Great importance in the green transition is given to the transport sector and its future
developments, as it nowadays accounts for a 21% share of total greenhouse gas
Introduction 2
emissions [4], and it is one of the largest sectors where emissions still grow up [5].
For this reason, reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector over the next fifty
years will be a major challenge. It will require structural changes in the way people
and goods move, and a shift to low-carbon forms of energy with a renewed focus on
more efficient use of energy. This requires a bunch of different technologies, some of
which could be still at early stages of development and commercialization, including
vehicles, powertrain, engine technologies, infrastructures to support alternative
fuels, and so on.
To make this happen, policies and initiatives that have already been undertaken in
many countries around the world will not be enough, requiring more action in the
coming years. The electric car and the whole universe that revolves around it will
have to be supported far beyond mere incentives to purchase vehicles, but the entire
supply chain will have to be supported, starting with the development of an adequate
charging infrastructure, up to the improvement of battery technologies.
1. Purpose of the work 3
1. Purpose of the work
The study proposed by this thesis wants to fit into the context of ecological
transition mentioned above and increasingly topical in the picture of post-pandemic
recovery from Covid-19, which could offer an important development opportunity
not to be missed by our country. In fact, although battered by the pandemic crisis, last
year sales of electric cars saw a significant increase, especially in Europe. Our country
has also achieved important results and in order not to be caught unprepared, the
development of the charging infrastructure will also have to accelerate. At the
moment in fact, most of electric vehicles owner have the possibility to carry out
private household charges, while those who should rely exclusively on public
charging are discouraged from buying an electric vehicle (EV): range anxiety, and long
charging times are the main obstacles. Therefore, a widespread charging network
capable of reducing charging times and delivering high powers, seems to be the most
appropriate response to these deterrents. But an increasing number of EVs and
charging stations will inevitably clash with the practical need to find large amounts of
energy in ever shorter times, placing an intolerable burden on the local electricity
infrastructure which could suffer from clogging and distortions.
What has just been said suggests that there is the possibility of building charging
stations with increasingly higher levels of self-sufficiency from the grid, focusing on
self-production of energy on site. This type of charging stations would allow to unlock
a further advantage inherent in the nature of electric vehicles, that of using electricity
for the charges produced from renewable energy sources. In fact, an EV that charges
with electricity taken from the grid is "emitting" exactly the amount of CO2 that the
grid has actually emitted to produce that electricity. By charging a vehicle at stations
where all, or almost all of the electricity is produced from zero-emission renewable
sources, the carbon footprint of vehicles can be actually reduced, making mobility
truly sustainable.
However, the massive use of renewable energy brings with it an intrinsic problem in
renewable sources themselves: their intermittence. Therefore, in order to manage the
loads and ensure the continuous coverage of the service, these stations must be
equipped with energy storage systems that allow the energy surplus to be used in
moments of lack of production. Therefore, solving this problem with an enabling
technology for the future will be another major challenge of this work: it focused on
1. Purpose of the work 4
the possibility of using hydrogen as an energy vector and on the evaluation of its usage
feasibility in correlation with such application.
Therefore, the discussion will begin in chapter 2 with a general framework on electric
vehicles, from their classification to the current state of their diffusion, and from their
energy and environmental impact to the current development of their charging
modes and infrastructures. The state of the art of fast charging and its charging
schemes are faced in chapter 3, while in chapter 4 the possible configurations of the
production plant to be associated with charging stations, will be analysed together
with a discussion on the coupling with a storage system. A more in-depth look will be
reserved for the hydrogen storage system, as already said, which potentiality could
add a lot to the functionality of the production plant. Chapter 5 will deal with the case
study of a station of this type located on a motorway section of the Grande Raccordo
Anulare of Rome (GRA), analysing the penetration scenarios for EVs in Italy, market
data and traffic data for the area. Subsequently, the possibility of adding a Mass
Market Retailers (MMR) point to the charging station was discussed, in order to offer
the patrons of the station a point of sale where to spend the time necessary for the
charge, making the station more attractive. At this point in chapter 6, using the
HOMER software, some simulations to optimize load management and establish the
best system configuration will be set up. In chapter 7 results of the simulations will
be provided and analysed to understand the technical feasibility of the project. An
economic analysis on the obtained configuration plant will be presented in chapter 8
to evaluate the investment sustainability, to then close the work with our conclusions
on the topic.
2. Electric vehicles 5
2. Electric vehicles
The term “electric vehicles” (EVs) refers to vehicles that use electricity as a
primary source for generating the mechanical energy needed for motion; the use of
electricity as a primary fuel is made possible through its storage in batteries which
can be recharged by connection with the electricity grid or by regenerative systems
installed on board, independently of whether these vehicles are equipped or not with
an auxiliary internal combustion engine.
Let's now clarify the types of electric vehicles that populate the streets [6]:
• BEVs = Battery Electric Vehicles, i.e. fully electric vehicles, which move thanks
to the driving power generated by an electric motor and have as their only on-
board energy storage system an electrochemical storage, a battery, that can
only be recharged through connection with the grid. Batteries tend to be large
to maximize energy storage capacity and allow for the longest possible driving
intervals. In general, the efficiency of these vehicles is very high, as they
convert about 80% of stored energy into motion (compared to 18-25% of
endothermic vehicles). Further advantages also come from the braking
system, which uses the regenerative system, thus helping to keep the battery
charged.
• HEVs = Hybrid Electric Vehicles, or conventional hybrid vehicles also called
“Full Hybrid”. They take advantage of the presence of two motors inside them.
The internal combustion engine is supported by the electric one, in fact
hybridization can be considered a technology added to conventional vehicles
with the aim of increasing fuel efficiency, thus reducing pollutant and CO2
emissions. Their battery cannot be recharged from the grid, but is generally
charged during regenerative braking or while the vehicle is decelerating, thus
recovering the released kinetic energy.
• PHEVs = Plugin Hybrid Electric Vehicles, i.e., rechargeable hybrid vehicles,
which have the same structure as HEVs. The substantial difference with
hybrids (HEVs) is that the on-board battery can be charged from the domestic
or public electricity grid and the combustion engine supports the electric one
when greater operating power is required, or when the battery charge status
is low. Obviously, batteries installed on PHEVs have little size with respect to
the ones on board of BEVs because they can also rely on the thermal engine.
2. Electric vehicles 6
On the basis of this division, in the continuation of the work, the term EVs will refer
exclusively to vehicles able to charge through connection with the electricity grid, that
are BEVs and PHEVs.
The structure of electric and hybrid cars is very similar and partly reflects that of
normal cars with internal combustion engines. The main components are
characterized by:
• Electric motor. It is the characterizing element for EVs and converts the
electrical energy from the battery pack into mechanical energy allowing the
movement of the car. These engines are very efficient, with very high
conversion efficiencies and maximum and constant drive torque already at
low rpm. In addition, the electric motor can be mounted on the same axis as
the ICE shaft or on a separate axis;
• Electric generator. It is able to produce electricity starting from other forms
of energy: in this case, from the mechanical energy produced thanks to the
intelligent braking system of the vehicle or deriving energy from the ICE;
• Batteries. They are the real tank for EV, comparable to a source of electricity.
Their main function is to provide the energy to allow the movement of the
vehicle. They can be recharged with the electricity acquired from the network
thanks to a special charging connector or by means of the internal combustion
engine or a regenerative brake system integrated into the car;
• Electronic system. It consists of a series of converters and power regulators
that regulate the torque and speed of the electric motor, as well as converting
the direct current supplied by the batteries into alternating.
In hybrid cars there is also the presence of all the other components linked to the
presence of the thermic engine (elbows, bearings, cylinders, pistons, filters, timing
belts, spark plugs, tanks, etc) that can be found inside a traditional car. In addition, as
mentioned, there are regenerative brakes which, during the deceleration of the car,
allow you to recover energy and recharge the battery [7].
In the picture below are represented graphically the main components for a BEV and
a standard car, together they make the components for a PHEV.
2.1. Global picture 7
Potentiality of EVs is vast. A spread of electric vehicles creates a new demand for
electricity that can be supplied from renewable sources, making electrical mobility
totally green. Even if electricity to charge their batteries is taken from the dirtiest grid,
it has been demonstrated [8], and will be studied in deep further on, that such an
energy would be a cleaner and cheaper fuel for vehicles as well. This is due to the fact
that an EV has higher efficiency in energy conversion with respect to a traditional
fossil fuel powered vehicle. This highlights the fact that increasing more and more the
percentage of electricity produced by renewables energies through which charges are
made, will make EVs cleaner and cleaner as well.
2.1. Global picture
Electric cars will be the future of mobility and society is realizing it. The big
picture of electric car sales in 2020 shows a new record with 3,24 million passenger
cars and electric light-duty vehicles (LDV) registration globally [9] over the year,
reaching a growth rate of +43% year-to-year. In 2020 registrations of electric vehicles
accounted for 4,2% of the total ones relating to any type of power supply, growing
Figure 2.1. EV fundamental components (source: elaboration EEA)
2.1. Global picture 8
(+1,7%) compared to 2019 and gaining back a momentum [10] lost in 2018-2019
(+0,3%) due to stagnation in Chinese and US markets [11], two of the biggest ones.
Despite a brilliant result, the 1st half of 2020 was overshadowed by the COVID-19
pandemic and lockdowns, causing unprecedented declines in vehicle sales from
February onwards. In this context, however, the electric car market was less affected
than the total one. For the first 6 months of 2020 the volume loss was -28% for the
total vehicle market, compared to first half of 2019, while EVs held up better and
posted a loss of -14% year-on-year for H1.
China, USA and Japan suffered the most from the crisis, reflecting in a very strong
recession in electric car sales: respectively -42%, -25% and -38% [12]. The European
market instead, was the only electric market that managed to score the plus sign in
EVs registrations, hitting +57% thanks to policies and incentives proposed by main
European countries to counter the severe recession of the total market [13].
Figure 2.2. Global annual EVs registrations [9]
2.1. Global picture 9
Recovery started between May and July ongoing the whole second half of 2020, and
while the total market share of sales was sluggish recovering part of the losses, the
electric vehicle market had a huge recover going beyond expectations. Data taken by
EV-Volumes set the year-on-year increase in 2020 global EV sales at +43% with
respect to 2019, despite a total market contraction of about -14%.
The final figure that most catches the eye is the overtaking of Europe over China. In
fact, in 2020 Europe registered a +137% increase in electric car sales for a total of
Figure 2.3. EVs registrations in main markets, June 2020 [9]
Figure 2.4. EVs registrations in main markets, December 2020 [9]
2.1.1. Policies and future developments 10
almost 1,4 million registrations, becoming the first market in the world followed by
China with more than 1,3 million sales.
This growing trend reached its peak in December 2020, giving good hope for the
beginning of 2021. Estimates for the ongoing year talk about 4,6 million plug-in sales
expected, with higher growth in USA and China. Europe is not likely to repeat the
+137% increase of last year, but 2 million sales could be reached.
With the 3,24 million global sales of last year, global electric vehicle fleet by 31
December 2020 accounted for over 10 million units.
2.1.1. Policies and future developments
The exploit in electric car deliveries sanctioned by above data was uphold by
governments around the world, that have introduced policies to support the
transition towards the green market, sending a strong signal to both industry and new
car buyers. These policies take a variety of forms: national greenhouse gas reduction
targets for transport; fuel efficiency targets and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission
Figure 2.5. Global EVs stock per market (source: reworking IEA, EV-Volumes data)
2.1.1. Policies and future developments 11
standards; EV stock and sales targets; financial support for consumers and producers;
regulations for the charging infrastructure and distribution support.
In recent years, these policies have increasingly been accompanied by a long-term
vision to phase out sales of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to reach a
fully electric market, particularly in Europe. Consideration has already begun to
establish restricted access zones for ICE vehicles in some large cities (e.g., Rome plans
to ban diesel vehicles in 2024) up to medium and long-term plans for the gradual
phasing out of ICEVs.
Several countries have already announced targets for the next years [14]: China plans
to reach 25% market share for electric vehicles by 2025; USA has set the goal of 3,3
million ZEV circulating in 11 states by 2025 and aims to reach 100% of ZEV sales in
10 states in 2050; the European Union has set the target of 13 million BEV + PHEV
vehicles circulating by 2025 at communitarian level, and each state has identified
further national targets.
The forecasts by IEA [14] on the future of electric cars in the world based on the
policies and objectives declared by the various countries to date, constitute the Stated
Policies Scenario (STAPS), in which it is foreseen that the global EV stock will expand
to 50 million by 2025 and close to 140 million vehicles by 2030, corresponding to an
annual average growth rate close to 30%. Thanks to this continuous increase in sales
share, EVs are expected to account for about 7% of the global vehicle fleet by 2030,
reaching almost 25 million units sold in 2030, about 16% of all road vehicle sales.
In the Sustainable Development Scenario instead, which is based on limiting the
global temperature rise to below 1,7-1,8 °C with a 66% probability and on reaching
net zero emissions by 2070, the global EV stock is expected to reach almost 245
million vehicles in 2030.
Figure 2.6. Global EVs stock forecasts [14]
2.2. Italian picture 12
2.2. Italian picture
Italian EVs market was slow to get started in the early years due to the lack of
development of the charging infrastructure and incentives to purchase electric
vehicles. The real development took place starting from 2018 when 10.000 sales and
a share of 0,5% of the car market were reached, and continued in 2019 until the
outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The impact of the pandemic was strong, with
plants down due to the lockdown and a consequent economic crisis that led to a
massive decline in overall sales. The total market in 2020 suffered a very strong
setback (-27,9%), but not the electric one, which instead continued to grow with the
appropriate support by incentives [15], even exceeding pre-pandemic forecasts.
Data claim out that 59.875 electric vehicles were registered in 2020 in Italy, recording
a huge increase of +251% compared to the 17.600 total deliveries of 2019. About 56%
of these, 32.500 units, are pure electric (+203% compared to 2019) and the remaining
46% (27.375 vehicles, +334%) are plug-in hybrids [16]. Compared to the market
related to all types of power supplies, electric cars registrations represented 4,33%
of the total ones (approximately 1,4 million in 2020) with an increase of over 3,4
percentage points.
Last year sales pushed the Italian electrical vehicle fleet to 99.257 units by the end of
2020. Despite the trend of great growth of the last couple of years, with a CAGR
Figure 2.7. EVs registrations in Italy (source: rework, Motus-E) [17]
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