Introduction
VII
well as the dialogues. This last point will be examined in such a way that all the expressiveness
and intensity will emerge naturally, since they are some of the features that attracted so much
attention on the reading public.
First chapter
8
CHAPTER ONE: MARTYRDOM AND ANTIQUITY
1.1 The martyrdom
1.1.1 The meaning of the word ‘martyrdom’
Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise as
serpents, and harmless as doves. But beware of men: for they will deliver you up to
the councils, and they will scourge you in their synagogues; And ye shall be brought
before governors and kings for my sake, for a testimony against them and the
Gentiles. But when they deliver you up, take no thought how or what ye shall speak:
for it shall be given you in that same hour what ye shall speak.
For it is not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father which speaketh in you.
And the brother shall deliver up the brother to death, and the father the child: and the
children shall rise up against their parents, and cause them to be put to death. And ye
shall be hated of all men for my name's sake: but he that endureth to the end shall be
saved.
‘Martyrdom’ derives form the Greek martyr ‘witness’, then martyr, meant as faith’s
witness; it’s the acceptance of all sorts of sufferings and pains or even death for the extreme
protection of one’s faith
1
.
The sacrifice is rewarded with a gift, that changes according to the religious faith.
Usually the perspective is the achievement of the Holy Kingdom, paradise,, and the possibility
of intercession for the living. All the apostles, except for John who was tortured and exiled,
lived the martyrdom; they were not afraid of paying with their won blood what they saw and
what they believed in. Like baptism, also the sacrifice of martyrdom makes the soul worth of
the immediate access into the Holy Reign.
In recent times, the term is also employed to describe activities such as the commitment
in the missionaries or in other difficult contexts , and more in general for hard and oppressive
situations.
1
DISC (Dizionario Italiano Sabatini Coletti) Giunti, Firenze, 1997
First chapter
9
1.1.2 Martyrdom and the great monotheist religions
The martyrdom is a practise present in almost all the great monotheistic religions; in the
Christian sphere is the direct evidence of the total and unconditioned love for Christ. With his
sacrifice that saved humanity, Jesus was the first martyr and the apostles, literally ‘envoys’,
brought his message among earthly men.
The Jewish martyrdom reminds to the pain and suffering felt by the Jewish people. The rabbis
accepted the martyrdom only on particular occurrences: they considered death as the only
solution before incest, adultery, idolatry and murder.
In the Islamic religion, martyrdom is linked to Husayan’s death, Ali’s second son and
Mahomet’s son-in-law. His tomb, in Karbala, has become the second most important sanctuary,
after the Mecca. In the Islamic way of thinking is very important the concept of ‘jihad’, the
effort on Allah’s way. It could be a collective as well as an individual effort for the protection of
the Islamic faith. Doing this action is one of the possible ways that leads someone to become a
martyr or shahid (those who die during a holy fight).
1.1.3 The martyr
‘Martyr’ derives from the Greek martyr ‘witness’; it means that Christian men were ready to
pay, even with death, their love for Christ.. Jesus himself chose the sacrifice as a supreme act of
love for all the men. He identified himself with the cross and expresses to God the same
evidence of faith. Martyr is someone that dies for religious ideas; it’s not only the evidence of
faith, but also the death for the faithfulness to the religious ideals that makes a man worthy of
the title of martyr.
Christians are martyrs because they were Christ’s witnesses; they believed in his words
and, for this reason, they were persecuted and killed. Jesus taught to the apostles how to be
martyrs through the wise use of sermons and parables and he defined them ‘sheep in the midst
First chapter
10
of wolves’; they knew they had to accept death by those people that they were trying to save.
The wolves are just killing bodies, but not their spirit.
2
Since they were witnesses of Christ’s life, love and mission, they were called to lead and bring
the evil and disobedient side of the world back to the Father.
1.1.4 The martyr’s features
The basic element that all the martyrs share is the courage before death; almost all
accept their destiny with a ‘Deo Gratias’. They live with awareness a terrible and violent
experience, both from the physical and psychological point of view. They face pain and death
with joy; their attitude is extremely light-hearted and peaceful, sometimes it appears even
shameless and irreverent .
They consider death as a form of physical freedom; it seems that body is only a temporary
covering of their everlasting spirit. They show a total freedom of speech that arises from the
certitude of their faith.
Another peculiar features of the martyrs is the wisdom, necessary to know what to say,
when and how: it’s important also because it allows the martyrs to face death with serenity.
They know they have no chance of escape from their destiny, and notwithstanding that, they
will serve Christ’s cause in order to carry out man’s salvation on earth.
According to specific rules, established between the 4
th
and 5
th
century, there are seven honours
that have to be bestowed to a martyr:
ƒ His name has to be recorded in the saints’ catalogue and it has to be fixed a day for the
public recognition;
ƒ His intercession is invoked in the Church’s prayers;
ƒ Churches dedicated to God are set up in his memory;
ƒ In his name both the eucharistic and the divine services are celebrated;
ƒ His feast-day is celebrated ;
2
TON J., Suffering, martyrdom, and rewards in heaven, University Press of America, Lanham 1997, p. 79
First chapter
11
ƒ Artistic representations are realised in his honour and he is always surrounded by a
glorious and divine light;
ƒ His relics are preserved in precious urns and publicly honoured
3
.
Each day of the Christian’s calendar is dedicated to one or more saints, and in each day special
prayers are said for the believers’ assistance during their existence, for the protection in the
most difficult moments of life, for the recover from illnesses and other blessings that were
previously addressed to God.
1.1.5 What needs a martyr to become a saint
In the course of history, the Church has recognised the title of blessed, and of saints to
hundreds of martyrs. This is due to the canonization process; the term derives from the Greek ‘
to introduce into the canon’. In the Catholic church the canonisation is the act by which the
Pope declares publicly the holiness of a deceased, and proposes him to the veneration.
The canonisation could be considered a natural evolution of the ancient Christian tradition,
where martyrs were publicly honoured; later the cult followed the popular spontaneity.
Only from 1171 the church established more precise rules: Pope Alexander III gave to
papacy the right of canonization. Between 1625 and 1634, Pope Urban VIII fixed the
bureaucratic process that, even with few changes, is still used today.
The title of saint implies specific features: the canonisation, with the exception of
special cases, could not be decreed before 50 years from the candidate’s death . The process is
quite long and requires the analysis of the candidate’s life as well as a collection of proofs and
testimonies concerning the exemplary of his Christian conduct of life, of the heroic virtues and
the attestation of two miracles.
3
TON J., op. cit., p. 367
First chapter
12
The one who is going to become saint will be distinguished from the other people for
his way of expressing feelings, thoughts, for his actions coherent with Christ’s model and in
keeping with God’s will.
When the examination turns out well, the Pope agrees the cause and assigns it to the
assembly for the saints’ cause; in this way the process starts and the candidate receives the title
of ‘venerable’. The final canonisation sanctioned by a solemn ceremony in St. Peter in Vatican.
There are several types of canonisation: besides the official one, it has to be mentioned
the equivalent canonisation, based on the test of veneration from time immemorial, or a Pope’s
recognition (only if it is prior to Pope’s Urban changes). Another new procedure is controlled
directly by the Pope himself, who picks up the results of the introductory process and
immediately proclaims the beatification.
Recently, the lapse of time for the canonization has further on shortened: the perfect
example is Mother Teresa of Calcutta, who died in 1997 and was proclaimed saint in 2003,
thanks to the direct intervention of Pope John Paul II. The apostolic constitution called ‘Divinus
Perfectionis Magister’ dated 25 January 1983, shortens in a drastic and significant way the time
for the canonization.
This process in going to be used by the Pope’s successor, Benedict XVI, for John Paul
II’s beatification
4
.
4
<http: //www.profeta.it /? =C=1688&a=1304> 16 \ 5 \ 2005
First chapter
13
1.2 Christianity and persecutions
1.2.1 Christianity and the society
Born in the Judean province around 30 AD, Christianity grew rapidly and in a
widespread way in several provinces of the roman empire. The origin is linked to the Whitsun,
when the apostles received the Holy Ghost; it’s a feast that falls one week after Easter. In that
occasion those who were the closest witnesses to Christ’s life, dispelled their doubts and began
to preach with courage and devotion and baptized thousands of Hebrews
5
. The gospels were
not yet written, but preaching reached with success the roman provinces in Asia, in the African
continent in Egypt and in Syria.
The intellectual of the time considered Christianity a restricted movement that shared
people with the same affinities: same social class, same problems, same jealousies, same claims.
Even if it was a new-born religion, Christianity has the power to knock down all the barriers
concerning race, language and culture
6
.
Among the different social classes that accepted the Christian religion, there were
slaves, that represented a significant part of the ancient world, and in particular of the roman
one. They were not only simple servants, but also a productive capital that could produce
richness under inhuman efforts. Christianity was accepted also in the middle class, among
merchants and even among soldiers; this latter class gave a high number of martyrs.
Historical analysis and testimonies lead the modern man to wonder why Christians, that
were at the same time conquerors and conquered, lived in a so passive their condition, without
rebelling and fighting for their freedom? They chose the way of the extreme sacrifice because
they had to teach a new virtue. They had to prove, with three centuries of cruel persecutions, the
power of the Christian faith over all the great powers
7
.
5
MARAVAL P., Les persécutions des chrétiens durant le quatre premiers siècles, Desclée, Paris, 1992, p. 7
6
ALLARD P., Dieci conferenze sul martirio, Pustet, Roma, 1912, p. 126
7
ALLARD P., op. cit., p. 156
First chapter
14
1.2.2 The persecutions: historical causes
The word ‘Persecution’ means a series of repressive measures established by the authorities,
that could be temporary as well as permanent, towards groups or individuals. These restrictions
could be total, or, on the other hand, could grant partial tolerance
8
. The Latin term ‘persecutio’
described a legal action; then, in the religious sphere, in particular the Christian one, the word
became synonym of cruel fury.
Pagans were afraid that the Christians could take them off their traditions, culture, power and
customs. During the early centuries, the Christians were often associated and mixed up with
Hebrews, since both refused the pagan cult and followed customs that were totally different
from the majority of people. The roman pagans criticized bitterly for their atheism and the
desire to protect the pureness of race
9
.
Christians were even more despised than Hebrews; they refused to sacrifice animals and
to pay religious homage to the emperor.
In the ancient world three great social classes could be distinguished: gentiles, Hebrews
and Christians; the latter were accused of the most reprehensible blames, such as crimes, incest
and cultural manipulation. They were considered inhuman and extremely dangerous
10
.
The emperors who ruled in the 2
nd
century didn’t consider the Christian as a threat, but
they were forced by the popular dissatisfaction to change their minds; so being Christian in
those years meant be guilty of something that had to be severely punished. As for the Christian,
they only asked the right to follow their faith: they never asked to keep separate form the rest of
the population, nor they wanted to shrink the common duties. Before the incomprehension of
the public opinion, they tried to explain their religion and customs, as well as the theological
ideas and moral rules.
8
MARAVAL P., op. cit., p. 5
9
ALLARD P., op. cit., p. 97
10
ALLARD P., op. cit., p. 98
First chapter
15
Between 64 AD, date of the first massacre ordered by Nerone, and 313 AD, when the
edited of tolerance was signed, Christians lived in an adverse world, that limited their freedom
of thought.
1.2.3 Diocletian and Maximian’s religious policy
Diocletian (243-313 AD), emperor from 284 to 305, contributed to the empire’s
renewal thanks to several reforms. His religious choices became more and more despotic; he
wanted to underline the divine nature of the king and, for this reason, he introduced oriental
ceremonies and proclaimed himself ‘Jovius’ , his direct descendant. In 302 he started the
persecutions against Christians, since they refused to adore him. He ordered the destruction of
religious buildings, among which Nicomedia’s church, and he burned religious writings
11
.
Under his reign thousands of martyrs were sacrificed: two important names were
Margaret of Antioch and Julian of Nicomedia.
Maximian Aurielius (278-312 AD) ruled from 306 to 312. He continued and even
intensified the persecutions against Christians, especially in the Oriental provinces
12
. One of the
most significant martyr is Catherine of Alexandria.
11
MARAVAL P., op. cit., p. 107
12
MARAVAL P., op. cit., p. 122
First chapter
16
1.3 The martyr’s evolution
In the monastic communities the martyr’s cult still exists; monks are considered as
‘living martyrs’ who preserve their way of living with patience, energy and perseverance.
We can have three different types of martyrdom: the red one, with bloodshed; the white
martyrdom, that gathers all those who choose to dedicate their existence to God in the name of
virginity and of ascetic rules, and the green one, where people did their best on behalf of
missionary in order to preach the Gospel
13
.
1.3.1 Women’s role
Women were usually isolated from the most important assignments, but in any case
they had the chance to become point of reference in acts of charity and proselytism. They were
outcast, because they were associated with the origin of sin and, more in general, with all the
evil things. For this reason, in the course of history, feminine education was always based on
rigid models, such as submission and obedience; the repression of sexual instincts becomes an
exigency and young girls were forced to bend their bodies to chastity to keep an
uncontaminated virginity
14
.
13
<http://www.kattoliko.it/leggendanera/antichità/sordi martirio.htm> 18 \ 7 \ 2005
14
<http://www.liceovoltacomo.it/pertesti/donna/cris.htm> 18 \ 7 \ 2005
Second chapter
17
CHAPTER TWO: THE ‘KATHERINE GROUP’
2.1 Historical introduction
The period between 12
th
and 13
th
century was marked by a strong revival of the
religious spirituality, especially among women. Women were incline to refuse marriage and to
isolate from the family to live in solitude. They didn’t despise motherhood or children’s
education, but they understood that one possible way to get free from their own condition of
minority, was to follow a new type of life offered by the religious movements
1
. The new
generations of young girls were educated according to the ascetic ideals, based on sacrifice and
modesty, demeanour, prayer and contemplation.
‘Mulieres sanctae’ was the Latin expression used to describe groups of women that
searched for a retired way of living marked by poverty, the refusal to give orders and to hold
richness
2
. This model spread quickly and successfully in France, Great Britain, Germany and
Italy.
Among the feminine orders that lived according to the new models, we find that of the
bigots
3
: the movement was born in Northern Europe and welcomed widows and unmarried
women. It was organised as a contemplative retreat and a new experience, but for these same
reasons it was criticized for the excessive freedom, especially by the masculine ecclesiastic
orders. It was even considered a lair of heretic people. Chiara of Assisi created the ‘clarisse’
nuns; they made charitable activities for poor people, mendicants: the life was based on lack of
comforts, work and humility
4
.
During the 12
th
and 13
th
centuries different groups of monks organised new forms of
religious contemplation, taking as models the retired life in the ancient Egypt; the founders of
the new monasteries were familiar with the ‘Viate Patrum’, texts that describe the solitary life
5
.
In England forms of retired life were already present since Anglo-Saxon’s conversion
and survived to the Norman conquest; if we take a look to the Chronicles, we find that hermits’s
lives were common in the literary background. Living life following the Christian faith, both in
monastery and in the family, was the preamble of solitude, one of the basic features of
anchoretic life.
1
DELLA CROCE G., Il genio femminile –la femminilità della donna dal medioevo ai giorni nostri-, Ares, Milano,
1999, p. 14
2
DIENZELBACHER P., BAUER D. R., Movimento religioso e mistica femminile nel Medioevo, University Press of
America, Lanham, 1997, p. 4
3
The term is not used as a pejorative, but as the translation of the Italian word ‘beghina’, and means woman that
belongs to a feminine religious movement.
4
DINZELBACHER P., BAUER D. R., op. cit., p. 59
5
SAVAGE A., WATSON N., Anchoritic spirituality, Ancrene Wisse and associated works, Paulist Press, Mahwah,
New Jersey, 1991, p. 3
Second chapter
18
2.1.1 Anchoritism
The anchorite is a steadfast presence in medieval England; he devotes his life to God
and ascetic rules. The existence is marked by apparent contradictions: locked but exposed,
hidden but visible, voluntary solitary and distinct from hermits
6
. His house is only a cell of
reduced dimensions, usually set close to the church; the cell represents the battlefield where
man’s soul has to fight against instincts, demons and temptations in order to separate the
physical and the emotional side. It’s also a place of contemplation and a refuge, that reminds to
the early martyrs’ prisons
7
.
The most important feature of this way of living are the total lack of comforts, food,
drinks and communication extremely reduced: only in this way men can wait for Christ in
pureness.
Someone could think that the idea of life as living death is an evident contradiction: the
truth is that it was the basic concept in the medieval initiation ceremonies. The petitioner
received the extreme unction: it was the sign that marked the end of the material life. The
hermitic life was not so gloomy as it seems; the reasons that pushed to change life were
different: it could be a penance to get free from sins or an ascetic choice, that underlined the
world’s dangers and, at the same time, man’s frailties
8
. Another feature of anchoritic life was
chastity, as the symbol of physical and spiritual pureness.
The anchorite is wedded to Christ but is also her widow: he is always present in her life
through Eucharist, but he’s physically inaccessible.
This spiritual way is full of difficult moments and doubts, but when one reaches the
‘pureness of heart and mind’, then he’s able to face up to life and live it with detachment and
common sense.
The anchoretic experience in England begins in the Anglo-Norman period; in the 14
th
century this way of living is accepted from the social, economic and cultural point of view,
especially in rural areas and small towns. In the 15
th
and 16
th
centuries it spreads successfully in
London, Lincoln, Kent, Norwich, Lynn.
English medieval anchoritism was marked by length, internal stability and constant
financial support both from other religious movements and the monarchy
9
. The financial
support was made up of donations and offers. Anchorites could contribute in different ways:
men worked as copyists, whereas women did needlework.
6
WARREN A. K., Anchorites and their patrons in Medieval England, University of California Press, Berkeley,
1985, p. 7
7
WARREN A. K., op. cit., p. 12
8
SAVAGE A., WATSON N., op. cit., p. 16
9
WARREN A. K., op. cit., p. 286
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