31
2. Nigeria
Nigeria is today a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and
its Federal Capital Territory: Abuja. To understand the complexity of a country
like Nigeria it is important to clarify some historical, political and social
aspects. The discourse on the state in Africa, particularly by African scholars,
has taken two major extremes. On the one hand there are those affirming that
African states mimic the notion of a democratic state and that perhaps it would
be appropriate to find another term to qualify what really exists in Africa.
These states are recognized by the international society but are actually lacking
of all the features of a state as defined in the modern world.
89
On the other hand
are those who acknowledge the existence of the state in Africa but in its
deformity. Many adjectives have been used to describe the African prototype
of nation: among them weak and failed are the most famous and abused.
Indeed, three main points are worthy of note about this issue. First is that state
does exist in Africa in spite of imperfections and challenges. Second, state
formation and consolidation processes are normally very long and difficult in
any society. Third, the very nature of African states cannot be detached by its
historiography. That is why, in order to understand Nigeria’s contemporary
politics and society, it is necessary to keep in mind, in a chronological order,
three main issues that influenced the part of Sub-Saharan Africa where Nigeria
lies: the earlier is the spread of Islam, that started a millennium ago and it helps
to understand the dichotomy between the rich and educated south versus the
poorer and much populated north. The second is the slave trade across both the
Atlantic Ocean and the Sahara Desert, which left a profound scar on all parts of
Nigeria and Africa. The most recent, and probably most important, is the
colonial experience that, even if relatively brief, unleashed such rapid change
that the full impact is still felt nowadays.
89 D. Williams, “Aid and Sovereignity: Quasi-state and the International Financial
Institutions”, Review of International Studies, No. 26: 557- 573, 2000.
32
2.1. Historical Framework
2.1.1. Pre-colonial and Colonial Period
The 19th century brought many changes into Nigeria. Muslim culture and
trade spread since 1804 when the Fulani, a northern tribe, decided to start a
holy war in order to spread and reform the practice of Islam in the north. In
1817, Muhammad Bello established a Caliphate centred at Sokoto, controlling
most of northern Nigeria until the coming of the British at the beginning of the
20
th
century. It has to be considered that since the end of the 19
th
century to its
independence, Nigerian history has to be considered as the story of the
transformational impact of the British on the peoples and cultures of the Niger-
Benue area. Impact guided primarily by economic and strategic interests. In the
Southern region, Great Britain had abandoned the slave trade since 1807, and,
to prevent other countries to perpetrate this practice and to protect its interests,
it had annexed Lagos in 1861. In 1877 the English founded a commercial
company with the purpose of eliminating the competition. This company, born
out of a previous French company would become the United African
Company. In 1879, Sir George Dashwood Taubman Goldie, considered a
founder of Nigeria, managed to gain control of the United African Company,
and few years later of two French companies, trading on the Niger. Thanks to
his efforts Great Britain signed treaties with numerous African leaders and was
able to claim South Nigeria at the 1884-85 Conference of Berlin. Goldie’s
efforts, served out by diplomatic treaties and the use of force to establish
English rule in southwest Nigeria, were crowned in the Royal Niger Company,
a charted company designed to administer the Niger River region, antagonizing
Africans and Europeans alike by its monopolistic trade on the region. English
aim was to expand their control all over the Nigerian territory.
Thus in 1900 the Royal Niger Company was dismissed and British forces
began to conquer the north, eventually taking down Sokoto in 1903. Three
years later, by 1906, Britain controlled Nigeria, which was divided into a
Lagos Colony and two protectorates: Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the
Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The situation lasted until 1914 when Lord
33
Lugard, at that time Governor of Northern Nigeria triggered the so-called
process of amalgamation, which resulted into the formation of the Colony and
Protectorate of Nigeria. The administrative system of Nigeria was based on an
"indirect rule" strategy: rather than creating a totally new administrative
network, Britain ruled through existing political institutions. In any case, all the
important decisions were made by the British governor and African rulers had
really few authority.
90
The colonial state was basically a military-administrative
unit, which object was to subjugate the local people, create a system of power
without accountability or responsibility, and form a state with foreign citizens,
but local subjects. This would have lasted until the end of the Second World
War, which would have highlighted the dichotomy of the colonialist policy and
the European values after the war.
91
When the the First World War broke out in Europe, the French-British
troops invaded the German Cameron, and at the end of the conflict the
Northern territories were assigned to the British Empire. The first after war is
considered a florid period in African history because it brought social and
economic development: African people started asking for a direct participation
in their government and the Indirect System began to loose its appeal. People
started asking for the Empire to grant the territorial self-government and the
foundation of schools and universities. Thanks to this reforming environment,
London allowed the participation of three representative members of Nigeria in
the Parliament: two from Lagos and one from Calabar, an important harbour
city in the South-East. These representatives are considered the first African
political class. During the same years the Southern region started showing its
discontent towards England and the Colonial Empire. In 1929, an uprising
broke out in the Western part of Nigeria, due to the introduction of a new
ethnic tax. The problem was born by the very structure of these populations:
among people used to live in an acephalous society. The very absence of a
hierarchical structure had prevented the indirect rule system to be applied
90 Richard Olaniyan, “The Amalgamation and Its Enemies: An Interpretive History of Modern
Nigeria,” Obafemi Awolowo University Press, 2003.
91 Said Adejumobi, Introduction in “State, economy, and society in post-military Nigeria”,
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
34
properly. The social structure of acephalous societies is not to be considered
apolitical, but the prevailing principle is that of equality among the members of
the community and the legitimation of each of them to take part in the political
and social life. This system recognizes the importance of kinship and for this
reasons the elders cover an important role of advice.
92
In 1947, after a decade of political turmoil, the British promulgated for the
first time a constitution that gave the local authorities a more important voice
in national affairs, thus excluding the Western-educated elite, which firmly
denied the constitution. As a result, in 1951, a second constitution was
instituted, providing for elected representation on a regional basis. Only one
year later this second constitution resulted unworkable and a new one was
adopted in 1954, enhancing the partition of Nigeria into three regions
(Northern, Western and Eastern) and exacerbating the already dramatic
economic, political, and social disparities among Nigeria's different ethnic
groups. From now on the country acquired those features that will lead him
into a dark vortex of ethnical rivalries that were crucial for the country’s
history and development. The dominant ethnic groups of each region, the
Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo, respectively formed political parties that were
largely regional and based on ethnic allegiances: the Hausa-Fulani based
Northern People's Congress (NPC) in the North; the Yoruba based Action
Group in the West (AG); and the Igbo National Conference of Nigeria and the
Cameroons (NCNC) in the East.
93
2.1.2. Post-colonial Period
The idea of independence was flourishing throughout Africa and Nigeria
was not spared from this political change. Elections were held in 1959 and
independence scheduled for 1960. The ethnic problem caused no party to won
a majority, and the NPC combined with the NCNC had to form a government.
Nigerian independence arrived on Oct.1, 1960 and Nigeria became officially a
republic in 1963. The first years were so much characterized by severe
92 G. Calchi Novati, P. Valsecchi, “Africa. La storia ritrovata,” Roma, Carocci, 2005.
93 Frederick Cooper, Africa since 1940: The past of the Present, Cambridge, U.K. New York,
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
35
conflicts within and between regions that national elections in 1964 were
harshly contested. At the beginning of 1966 two different coups caused the
creation of a military government under control of Igbo army officers at first
and Hausa army officers later. The regional and national constitutions were
suspended, thus creating a wave of violent reactions especially in the north,
where many Igbos were massacred. From that on Igbos started fearing for their
position inside the country and when the Hausa officers attempted to start
Nigeria along the road to civilian government the military governor of the
Igbo-dominated southeast proclaimed with southern parliament the secession
of the eastern region from Nigeria as the Republic of Biafra, an independent
nation on 30 May 1967. The young nation was determined to defend itself,
even if in shortage of weapons. The Eastern region was very ill equipped for
war, outmanned and outgunned by the Nigerians. After three years of war
suffering, terrifying civilian hunger and children starvation, Biafra capitulated
on January 15th, 1970, and the secession ended.
94
The early years of the ‘70s were dedicated to reconstruction where the war
had left its scar and Igbos people were slowly reintegrated into national life.
The state recovered quickly from the effects of the war and made impressive
advances due to the economic boom given by the emergent oil industry. In
1971, the Gowon administration decided to joined OPEC and, in order to
enhance government participation in the oil industry, the administration
established the Nigerian National Oil Corporation (NNOC). The east oil shocks
of 1973 and 1979 caused an increase in demand for crude oil and a boost in
price rises that allowed Nigeria to increase its earnings from 1.1 million USD
in 1970 to 53.3 million USD in 1979, thereby gaining the status of the first sub-
Saharan African country to successfully exploit its oil reserves.
95
However, the
political weak national apparatus led to government corruption, uneven
distribution of wealth, inflation and a high rate of unemployment, which gave
Gen. Murtala Muhammad the pretext to overthrown the Hausa regime with the
94 Alfred Obiora Uzokwe, “Surviving in Biafra,” iUniverse, 2003.
95 Mike Kwanashie, “Nigerian Economy: Structure, Organization and Management in Basic
Framework for industrial Policy in Nigeria”. Federal Ministry of Industries, Policy
Analysis Department, Abuja, 1991.
36
excuse to rebuilt a civilian rule government. But only one year after taking
office Muhammad was assassinated in an attempted coup and succeeded by
Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, which immediately had to face a crisis that caused a
rapid falling of oil revenues. To prevent public disorders the government
restricted public opposition to the regime controlling student movements and
union activities. Under Obasanjo, Nigeria sought Western back up and a short-
lived shift to democracy. In 1979, election were held under a new constitution
that had to support Obasanjo’s product of a new civilian government that
brought to power Alhaji Shehu Shagari. Also this new government was
plagued by corruption that coupled with a decline in world oil prices, causing
deterioration in the national finances. Nigeria’s external debt had risen from
USD 11.7 million to USD 44.3 million. Shagari administration took austerity
measures along the lines of IMF and World Bank, however, the economy
continued its downward slide until his administration was overthrown in 1985
when a new coup led by Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida arrived with the
promise of a new civilian government.
96
In 1990 a new constitution was promulgated and national election were set
for 1992. Babangida annulled the results claiming fraud and keeping the power
for one more year when Sani Abacha, one of his long-time allies, became
president banning all political institutions and labour unions. In 1995, Abacha
decided to extend military rule for three more years, with the proposal for a
program to return to civilian rule. In that same year the Abacha regime
received international condemnation when several army officers were arrested
and nine human rights activists condemned and executed. For this reason
Nigeria was condemned by human rights groups and suspended from the
Commonwealth of Nations. Abacha regime is considered one of the worst not
only for the social and civil crime he committed, but also for the economic
disadvantages he brought to Nigeria. Under his leadership the recourse
mismanagement was so bad that Nigeria was brought to the collapse of the oil
distribution, destroying the business of the four refineries. His leadership never
96 Toyin Falola and Julius Omozuanvbo Ihonvbere, “The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second
Republic, 1979-1983,” London: Zed Books, 1985.
37
faced the problem of disastrous telecommunication and growing
unemployment. The only thing he managed to do was to help the endemic
corruption of the country in those years.
97
Abacha died mysteriously in June
1998 and was succeeded by Gen. Abdulsalam Abubakar, who immediately
freed the political prisoners condemned under the Abacha regime, among them
Gen. Obasanjo. Abubakar then announced the intention to return to a civilian
rule government within a year, after elections would have been held at local,
national and federal level. All former political parties were disbanded and new
ones formed. Between December 1998 and February 1999 elections were held,
ending in the presidential contest, won by General Obasanjo with the support
of the People’s Democratic Party (PDP). International monitors agreed upon
the fairness of the elections and, thanks to Obasanjo, Nigeria was readmitted to
the Commonwealth.
98
2.1.3. Restoration of a Civilian Government
The new President took over a nation that was facing numerous issues,
including a dysfunctional administration, collapsed infrastructure, and a
military that was acting rebelliously in an attempt to keep some political force.
The President moved rapidly and fired many military officers holding political
positions, discharged detainees held without charge, created an ad hoc
commission to investigate human rights infringement, rescinded various
questionable licenses and contracts left by the past administrations and moved
to recover a large number of dollars in funds secreted to overseas account.
Obasanjo’s objectives were to battle past and present corruption in the national
government and armed force, develop the devastated Niger delta territory,
restore Nigeria in the global arena, support African democratization and create
financial ties with other developing nations.
99
97 “Sani Abacha: Legacy of a great leader,” Vanguard, June 17, 2011, accessed May 18, 2015,
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/06/sani-abacha-legacy-of-a-great-leader/.
98 “Observing the 1998-1999 Nigeria Elections,” Special Report Series, The Carter Center,
National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, Summer 1999, accessed May 19,
2015, https://www.cartercenter.org/documents/1152.pdf.
99 Robert I. Rotberg, “Crafting the New Nigeria: Confronting the Challenges,” Lynne Rienner
Publishers, 2004.
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