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INTRODUCTION
This work presents a multidisciplinary approach to the study of
contemporary environmental problems, which are investigated at first from
a scientific perspective, and, then, taking into account economic and, to a
larger extent, linguistic considerations, too.
The work is divided into two parts: the first part mainly focuses on the
definition of the environmental issue and on the way it started to be dealt
with at international level by institutions. The second part, instead, is an in-
depth investigation of the recent discipline of ecolinguistics as a means for
approaching the study of languages and language uses in an innovative and
critical way. What clearly emerges from this analysis is that language has a
paramount importance in the construction of the discourse about
environment and, consequently, it deeply influences collective sensibility
towards environment and ecological problems.
The point of departure of Chapter 1 is the reconstruction of the
environmental issue and of its most evident effect, climate change, for
which scientists are warning about the immediate need of an inversion of
trend. At this point, the recent Accord on climate reached in Copenhagen
at the end of last year is proposed, together with the analysis of the
translation strategies I opted for in Italian, to assess the actual binding force
of this Accord for the Member States that approved it.
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Once asserted the need to adopt all possible measures to implement
sustainable development, in Chapter 2 the hub of the analysis shifts to the
economic practices theorized by the new-born science of green economy
and to the importance of succeeding in realizing “the Green New Deal”,
through the spread of a greener economy.
After having delineated the importance of a harmonization between
environmental principles and economic intervention, Chapter 3 introduces
the basics of ecolinguistics and the potential of language in the sensitization
of collective consciousness towards ecological problems. A large section of
this chapter is devoted to the importance of metaphorical constructions to
mediate the relationship between language and environment.
Chapter 4 aims at further demonstrating the power of language in the
shaping of public consent and, hence, reference is made to the masked
ideologies conveyed through advertising. The proposed case study refers to
the TV commercial of a Japanese hybrid car recently launched on the
market. This analysis has proved to be useful for an investigation of the
recent phenomenon of “green marketing” and, connected to it, “green
washing”.
The work ends with some reflections on the performative value of
language, which is presented as the most effective and powerful means for
displaying social competence within official and legitimate institutions,
which, through a keen use of linguistic instruments, try to gain control on
human minds. In this regard, the production of meaning comes to be
considered as a socio-economic event that realizes power relations.
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1. DEFINITION OF THE CLIMATIC
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN AND
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
1.1 FROM THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCES ON CLIMATE CHANGE
TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
First climate changes started between the first and the second industrial
revolution (1750-1900), when the dramatic increase in the use of fossil fuels
by factories caused the growth of greenhouse gas emissions in the
atmosphere. When people talk about “climate change” today, however,
they mean the changes in temperature over the last 100 years. During this
time, the average temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface
has risen as a consequence of industrial production and agriculture. The
combination between productive activities and consumerism has produced
environmental problems which are not only local, but, actually, global. One
of these global environmental problems is man-made climate change, also
known as global warming. Most scientists agree that global temperatures will
continue to rise in the years ahead, as a consequence of future emissions of
greenhouse gases: if the temperature rise is high, changes are likely to be so
extreme that it will be difficult to cope with them. The consequences of
today’s global consumption and production patterns weigh against
ecosystems around the world. The impacts of cumulative pressures on
ecosystems may not be felt for many years, until some tipping points are
reached, leading to rapid unpredictable changes. Strong scientific evidence
indicates that global greenhouse gas emissions must peak by 2015 and,
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then, decline precipitously to avoid catastrophic climate change, that is why
scientists warn that the opportunity to reverse the rise in greenhouse gas
emissions and avoid catastrophic climate change is rapidly closing. A
warmer global climate will alter wind and rain patterns and it may lead to
rising sea levels. These changes will, inevitably, affect plant and animal life
as well as human health and survival.
Since the climate issue affects the entire world, international cooperation is
needed to find truly effective solutions in order to hinder potentially
disastrous consequences. Thus, since the half 1960s, international
negotiations have been taking place to agree on how to limit emissions.
In 1965 the first Conference on Nature and Natural Resources Preservation was
held in Bangkok but, on that occasion, the concept of environmental
education was connected just to the preservation of natural patrimony.
Some years later, in 1972, during the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm, the focus was no longer on the strictly
naturalistic aspect, but it was actually considered:
the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire
and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and
enhancement of the human environment. (Declaration of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5th-16th
June 1972).
The first international meetings gave the opportunity to investigate the
causes and possible operative solutions to effectively tackle environmental
issues and human-induced climate change.
In 1988, for example, the United Nations set up the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to analyse and report on scientific
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findings connected to environmental problems. Providing the decision
makers and other organizations interested in environmental problems with
an objective source of information about climate change, the IPCC warned
that only strong measures to stop greenhouse gas emissions would prevent
serious global warming. Other important international meetings were held
in the late 1980s, during the Conference in Villach (Switzerland) and, then,
in Toronto (1988), Ottawa (1989), The Hague (1989) and Cairo (1989).
In 1992 the UN Conference on Environment and Development, informally known
as the Earth Summit, called a meeting in Rio de Janeiro where an
international environmental treaty drafted by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted
by 154 nations to begin to consider what could be done to reduce global
warming and to cope with whatever temperature increase. On that
occasion, the international community agreed on a comprehensive strategy
to address development and environmental challenges through a global
partnership. The framework for this partnership was Agenda 21, which
covered the key aspects of sustainability, among which economic
development, social justice and, most importantly, environmental
protection. The main goal of the UNFCCC was to limit greenhouse gases
emissions in the atmosphere at levels that would not cause rapid and
dangerous climate changes. Moreover, the aim was to stabilize emissions
within a time frame that allowed ecosystems to adapt to climate change
naturally.
According to the economic weight of the Countries present to the
Convention, they were classified in:
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ξ Annex I countries represented by industrialized countries and economies in
transition. These countries committed themselves to reduce their
emission levels of greenhouse gases to targets that were mainly set below
their 1990 levels.
ξ Annex II countries represented by developed countries which provide
financial resources to assist developing countries in their endeavours to
undertake emissions reduction activities.
ξ Developing countries which are not required to reduce emission levels,
unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology.
The UNFCCC established that every country should work to combat
dangerous climate changes and gave the developed countries the greatest
burden of responsibility. At present, developing countries are not obliged
to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases, while industrialized
countries, including countries with economies in transition (countries in
Eastern and Central Europe and in the former Soviet Union), are required
to develop national action plans to reduce emissions and to protect and
develop forests and oceans that can absorb greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere. EU Member States agree that global temperature increases
should be limited to 2 ºC above pre-industrial levels in order to avoid
severe changes to our climate. This is the main goal of the global
“mitigation” efforts which are focused on cutting emissions of greenhouse
gases. However, even if emissions stop today, climate change will continue
for a long time due to the historical build up of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Consequently, everybody should understand the importance to
adapt to climate change. Adaptation means to cope with those impacts that
cannot be avoided. Climate change mitigation and adaptation are very
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closely linked. The more successful mitigation efforts are in cutting
emissions, the less extensive our need for adaptation.
The aim of the Convention was also to let industrialised countries assist the
developing countries in being more prepared to tackle the impacts of
climate change by supporting their economic growth and sustainable
development.
Sustainable development encompasses the view that a healthy environment
is essential to support a thriving economy. Therefore, decisions should be
reached taking into account both the present and future value of our
resources, in order to achieve continued economic development without a
decline of the environment. From this perspective, the UNFCCC formed
the basis for further cooperation and since 1992 the signatory Countries
have met every year to discuss new steps to take to fight climate change.
In the spring of 1995 the first UNFCCC Conference of Parties took
place in Berlin where some concerns about the adequacy of countries to
meet their commitments under the Convention were raised. These issues
were expressed in a U.N. ministerial declaration known as the "Berlin
Mandate", which set out some operative proposals of actions from which
industrialized countries could choose future options to take the lead in
addressing climate change. The Berlin Mandate exempted non-
industrialised countries from additional binding obligations in order not to
hamper their economic growth, but also in keeping with the principle of
“common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities” established in
the UNFCCC held in Rio in 1992. This principle is a manifestation of
general equity in international law, whereas it recognizes historical
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differences in the contributions of developed and developing States to
global environmental problems and, hence, differences in their respective
economic and technical capacity to deal with them. Principle 7 of the Rio
Declaration states that:
In View of the different contributions to global environmental
degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities.
The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear
in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the
pressures their society place on the global environment and of the
technologies and financial resources they command. (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Rio de Janeiro, 1992).
Since 1995, the Parties to the Convention have met annually in
Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with
climate change. COP-2 was settled in Geneva in 1996 and, on that
occasion, for the first time, a call for legally binding mid-term targets was
made. COP-3 took place in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, where a
number of nations approved, in addition to the Convention, the Kyoto
Protocol, an international and legally binding agreement which was signed
by 178 countries and entered into force on 16th February 2005.
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