China in International Relations from a Constructivist Perspective

6
Chapte r 1: Chi na and the T i anxi a doc tr i ne
1. Int roduc t i on
T he purpose of the pre se nt c ha pte r is to show the ste ps unde rta ke n by C hine se sc hola rs in
re c e nt ye a rs towa rds a ne w a pproa c h towa rds the ory-ma king in IR . T his he lps to show ne w tre nds in
C hine se IR the ory, a nd the e ffe c ts the se tre nds ha ve on polic yma king of C hine se politic a l a c tors.
As the c ha pte r will show, the ne w C hine se a pproa c h to IR the ory is ba se d on two tre nds, tha t
is to sa y, e fforts a ime d a t inte gra ting W e ste rn IR with C hine se c ha ra c te ristic s c oming from C hine se
c ulture a nd tra dition, a nd the re disc ove ry of a n a nc ie nt C hine se doc trine tha t provide s a n a lte rna tive
e xpla na tion for the inte rna tiona l syste m. Among the ma in c ha ra c te ristic s e mploye d by C hine se
sc hola rs, the c onc e pts of ha rmony a nd re la tionship a re the most innova tive a nd c onse que ntia l for IR .
In the c onte xt of the pre se nt the sis, ha rmony is the ma in c onc e pt a ddre sse d in the a na lysis, a s the
c onc e pt of re la tionship is more bila te ra l in na ture , whe re a s ha rmony is more ge ne ra l a nd syste mic .
In fa c t, ha rmony prove s to be the ide ologic a l ba se of “ na tiona l re juve na tion” , a na rra tive tha t
provide s the ide ologic a l founda tion for polic yma king in C hine se inte rna l a ffa irs, a nd the na rra tive of
the C hine se Dre a m, whic h e xpla ins the ide ology be hind polic yma king in C hine se e xte rna l a ffa irs.
Inde e d, the a na lysis of the C hine se Dre a m she ds a ne w light on the B e lt a nd R oa d Initia tive , whic h is
thus to be se e n a s a n e ffort from the C hine se gove rnme nt to spre a d its ide a s a nd tra ditions to othe r
c ountrie s so a s to provide a n a lte rna tive to W e ste rn c iviliz a tion a nd de ve lopme nt.
2. T he C hi ne se Sc hool of Int e rna t i ona l R e l a t i ons
One of the most inte re sting a spe c ts of the c urre nt a spe c ts of C hine se fore ign polic y is
undoubte dly its a pproa c h to W e ste rn Inte rna tiona l R e la tions the ory, be c a use of its importa nc e in
le tting us unde rsta nd through whic h le nse s C hine se polic y-ma ke rs a pproa c h inte rna tiona l politic s,
a nd how muc h this a pproa c h is influe nc e d by C hine se tra ditions. Furthe rmore , it a lso highlights the
proble ma tic s tha t C hine se sc hola rs fa c e whe n a pproa c hing IR tha t c ome from the promine nc e of
W e ste rn thought, tha t is, the la c k of c onc e pts tha t a re funda me nta l in C hine se thought.
7
2
Q. Yaqing, “Why is there no Chinese international relations theory?”, (ed.) in Relations of the Asia-Pacific, Vol. 7, No.
3, 2007, pp. 313-340, p. 314.
3
Ibidem.
4
Ivi , p. 315.
5
S. Kumar, “Theorising Chinese International Relations and the Rise of China: A Preliminary Investigation”, (ed.) in
Relaciones Internacionales Vol. 27, No. 54, 2018, pp. 23-32, p. 25.
6
Q. Yaqing, “Why is there no Chinese international relations theory?”, cit., p. 316.
7
Hun Joon Kim, “Will IR Theory with Chinese Characteristics be a Powerful Alternative?”, (ed.) in The Chinese Journal
of International Politics , 2016, pp. 59–79, p. 69.
8
Q. Yaqing, “Development of International Relations theory in China: progress through debates”, (ed.) in International
Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 2011, Vol. 11, No. 2, Special Issue: International Relations studies in Asia, the US and the
UK, 2011 , pp. 231-257, pp. 240-244.
9
Ivi, p. 241.
Historic a lly, the C hine se a c a de mia re lie d on a pra gma tic a l a na lysis of c urre nt a ffa irs through
the le nse s of Ma rxism-L e ninism, whic h unde rmine d the sc ope a nd possibilitie s for the birth of a true
ge ne ra l C hine se IR the ory.
2
T he re fore , this ha s le d to a diffe re nt e volution of C hine se IR the ory in
re spe c ts to W e ste rn IR the ory. W hile the la tte r foc use d on knowle dge produc tion a nd trie s to de ve lop
a ge ne ra l fra me work in orde r to e xpla in fore ign polic y pra c tic e s, the forme r foc use s on justifying sa id
pra c tic e s through the e mployme nt of the ore tic a l c onc e pts.
3
T his c onc e ption wa s e vide nt, for e xa mple ,
throughout the C old W a r, whe n C hine se sc hola rs a na lyz e d W e ste rn the orie s in orde r to unde rsta nd
W e ste rn polic ie s a nd to ide ntify possible we a kne sse s in the se the orie s a nd pra c tic e s.
4
T he turning point for a ne w c onc e ption of C hine se IR the ory c a me following T ia na nme n
Squa re a nd the tida l shoc ks it c a use d both in C hina a nd a c ross the world. T he C hine se a c a de mia
sta rte d to re e va lua te ma instre a m W e ste rn the orie s, a nd to c onside r the ir e mployme nt a nd the
possibility of the ir inte gra tion with tra ditiona l C hine se philosophic a l c onc e pts, on the fa shion of
Se c re ta ry De ng Xia oping’s the ory of “ Soc ia lism with C hine se c ha ra c te ristic s” .
5
T his ne w c urre nt of
thought sta rte d in 1990, whe n the works of Ha ns J. Morge ntha u a nd of Ke nne th W a ltz , the fa the rs
re spe c tive ly of c la ssic a l a nd offe nsive re a lism, we re tra nsla te d offic ia lly in C hine se , a sign of the
e ve r-growing inte re st C hine se the orists ha d for re a list the ory.
6
Howe ve r, libe ra l a nd institutiona l ne o-
libe ra l IR the ory soon c a me to wie ld a n e xte nsive influe nc e in C hine se a c a de mia , a s we ll, c onside ring
tha t topic s tra ditiona lly linke d to libe ra l IR the ory, suc h a s globa liz a tion a nd multila te ra lism, ha ve
be e n inc re a singly a na lyz e d in C hine se a c a de mia .
7
Importa ntly e nough, the rise of the se two ra dic a lly diffe re nt sc hools of thought a nd the e nd
of the C old W a r brought with it a n e xte nsive de ba te ove r wha t wa s C hina ’s na tiona l inte re st a nd the
be st wa y to a c hie ve it.
8
C hine se re a lists fe a re d tha t the unipola r syste m would ha ve c a use d a vita l thre a t to the
se c urity of the sta te , a ffirming tha t it wa s in the Unite d Sta te s be st inte re st to unde rmine C hine se
Asia n he ge mony through the frustra tion of C hine se a mbitions ove r T a iwa n.
9
It followe d tha t the most
pre ssing c onc e rn for C hina a fte r the e nd of the C old W a r wa s the a bility to inc re a se milita ry might in
8
10
Ivi , p. 242.
11
T. T. Do, “China's rise and the ‘Chinese dream’ in international relations theory”, (ed.) in Global Change, Peace &
Security , Vol. 27 No.1 , 2015, pp. 21-38, p. 34.
12
H. J. Kim, “Will IR Theory with Chinese Characteristics be a Powerful Alternative?”, cit., p. 72.
13
Q. Yaqing, “Development of International Relations theory in China”, cit., p. 242.
14
Ivi , p. 243.
15
Ivi , p. 242.
16
Ivi , p. 243.
17
Ivi , p. 244.
18
N. Noesselt, “Is There a "Chinese School" of IR?”, (ed.) in GIGA (German Institute of Global and Area Studies)
Working Papers, No. 188, 2012, pp. 4-28, p. 11.
19
T. Do, “China's rise and the “Chinese dream”, cit. p. 27.
20
S. Kumar, “Theorising Chinese International Relations and the Rise of China”, cit., p. 26.
orde r to ove rc ome the opposition of the Unite d Sta te s to na tiona l re unific a tion.
10
In the vie w of Ya n
Xue tong, one of the le a ding C hine se IR re a lists, the obje c tive is not limite d to ha rd powe r, but soft
powe r, a s we ll a s his be lie f tha t C hina must provide a n a lte rna tive mode l of soc ie ty.
11
T he be lie f of
Xue tong is re fle c te d in his a pproa c h to IR the ory, ba se d in re a lism a nd the re disc ove ry of tra ditiona l
C hine se thought a s we ll, re fe rre d to a s the “ T singhua a pproa c h” .
12
C hine se libe ra ls pointe d out tha t the e nd of the C old W a r, the inc re a se d pushe s for
globa liz a tion, the inc re a sing de ve lopme nt of the C hine se e c onomy impa c te d its na tiona l se c urity,
a lthough not in the tra ditiona l se nse .
13
More ove r, the ne w tra nsna tiona l na ture of se c urity c onc e rns,
suc h a s te rrorism or pollution, c a use d a de c line in the importa nc e of tra ditiona l me a ns of se c urity a nd
the ne e d for ne w one s.
14
T he c ritic ism ma de to re a lists wa s ba se d on the obse rva tion tha t a n e xc e ssive
inc re a se in milita ry forc e c ould ha ve le d to a n inc re a se d possibility of milita ry re ta lia tion.
15
Give n
the ne w na ture of se c urity a nd thre a ts, C hine se libe ra ls be lie ve d tha t the be st wa y for C hina to fulfill
its na tiona l inte re st wa s to e nga ge more in inte rna tiona l institutions, whic h in time would ha ve le d
C hina to re a c h solutions for its proble ms a t a c ost-e ffic ie nt wa y.
16
T he de ba te c onc lude d with the c onsolida tion of libe ra l the orists a s the most influe ntia l IR
sc hool in C hina .
17
T his c onsolida tion of libe ra l the ory in C hina a ffe c te d the c onc e ption of wha t is IR
the ory, a nd how it should be e mploye d. In fa c t, it a ppe a rs tha t the most diffuse d c onc e ption of the
purpose of the ory is the one provide d by Sha ngha i’s Fuda n Unive rsity, a c c ording to whic h the ory is
for the pre dic tion of things be fore the y ha ppe n, a nd for the a c c umula tion of knowle dge .
18
In a ddition,
the ne w foc us on the ory produc tion is a lso influe nc e d by the fa c t tha t the re se a rc h of Qin Ya qing, a
promine nt C hine se a c a de mic who re fe rs to c onstruc tivist the ory, is a t the c ore of the Institute of
Inte rna tiona l R e la tions of the C hina Fore ign Affa irs Unive rsity (C FAU), a n institution dire c tly unde r
the c ontrol of the C hine se Fore ign Ministry.
19
A furthe r e volution for C hine se IR ha s c ome with the rise to powe r of Hu Jinta o, se c re ta ry
ge ne ra l of the C hine se C ommunist Pa rty (C PC ) from 2002 to 2012, who a dvoc a te d for a “ pe a c e ful
rise ” , la te r on re bra nde d a s “ pe a c e ful de ve lopme nt” , of C hina a t the inte rna tiona l sta ge .
20
T his c onc e pt
9
21
N. Noesselt, “Is There a "Chinese School" of IR?”, cit., p. 11.
22
Q. Yaqing, “Development of International Relations theory in China”, cit., p. 245.
23
Ivi , p. 248.
24
N. Noesselt, “Is There a "Chinese School" of IR?”, cit., p. 15.
25
T. Do, “China's rise and the “Chinese dream”, cit. p. 22.
26
Q. Yaqing, “Development of International Relations theory in China”, cit., p. 250.
27
S. Kumar, “Theorising Chinese International Relations and the Rise of China”, cit., p. 30.
28
R. Pettman, “International Relations with Chinese Characteristics”, (ed.) in Chinese Journal of International
ReviewVol. 1, No. 2, 2019, pp. 1-17, p. 15.
29
Ivi , 10.
brought a lot of que stions for C hine se sc hola rs, suc h a s if it wa s truly possible for C hina to be c ome
one of the le a ding world powe rs without a ttrition a nd re pe rc ussions c oming from othe r c ountrie s,
na me ly its Asia n ne ighbors a nd the Unite d Sta te s.
21
T his ongoing de ba te ha s prove n to be the ba ptism of fire for C hine se c onstruc tivists, who
ha d ra pidly c a me to promine nc e following the tra nsla tion a nd public a tion in 2000 of Soc ial The ory
of Inte rnational P olitic s , writte n by Ale xa nde r W e ndt a nd tra nsla te d by Qin Ya qing.
22
Ac c ording to
C hine se c onstruc tivists, it is possible for C hina to pe a c e fully rise if it ra ise s its involve me nt in
inte rna tiona l institutions a nd inte rna tiona l c oope ra tion, a s the oriz e d by the libe ra l a s we ll, but it must
a lso move be yond, a nd ma ke its ide ntity c oinc ide with this purpose .
23
More ove r, from this point
onwa rds C hine se sc hola rs sta rte d to strive towa rds the c re a tion of a C hine se IR the ory, in orde r to be
more inde pe nde nt from W e ste rn thought a nd c onc e pts.
24
As of now, the la rge ma jority of C hine se IR
sc hola rs a gre e tha t the building of a C hine se IR the ory is a ta sk of the utmost importa nc e .
25
T his e ffort is motiva te d by the fa c t tha t C hine se sc hola rs do not fully fe e l tha t W e ste rn
the orie s a re a mple e nough to inc lude tra ditiona l C hine se ide a s a nd c onc e pts in IR , na me ly the
re la tiona lity mode l (se e be low).
26
Some a uthors go a s fa r a s to sa y tha t the c re a tion of a fully C hine se
IR the ory is importa nt in orde r to be tte r a na lyz e a nd give a n a de qua te c onte xt to the rise of C hina ,
27
a nd tha t C hine se politic a l e lite s ma y find the solutions to mode rn proble ms in a nc ie nt doc trine s.
28
Furthe rmore , it is indic a tive tha t suc h a n e ffort is sha re d a nd possibly foste re d by politic a l e lite s a s
we ll, c onside ring the a bove me ntione d re la tion be twe e n polic y-ma ke rs a nd sc hola rs in C hina . For
insta nc e , in 2017 Xi Jinping, the ge ne ra l se c re ta ry of the C ommunist Pa rty of C hina from 2012,
during a n a ddre ss a ime d a t the c a dre s of the pa rty c a lle d for a more a mple usa ge of “ C hine se wisdom”
a nd “ C hine se c iviliz a tion” in orde r to solve globa l proble ms.
29
T he c onc e pt of wha t c onstitute s
e xa c tly a “ C hine se c iviliz a tion” is not we ll de fine d ne ithe r in W e ste rn nor C hine se thought, howe ve r
it is sa fe to a ssume tha t the re fe re nc e inc lude s to some de gre e the C onfuc ia n philosophy, a nd the IR
syste m a dopte d a t the time s of Impe ria l C hina .
In pa rtic ula r, the c onc e pts tha t a re fully roote d in tra ditiona l C hine se thought a nd pra c tic e
tha t a re se e ing a re surge nc e in the fie ld of IR a re the c onc e pts of re lationship ( 关系 ) a nd harmony ( 和
谐 ) .
10
30
T. Uemura, “Understanding Chinese Foreign Relations: A Cultural Constructivist Approach”, (ed.) in International
Studies Perspectives, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2015 , pp. 345-365, p. 349.
31
Ibidem .
32
Ivi, pp. 349-350.
33
N. Godehardt, “No End of History: a Chinese Alternative Concept of International Order?”, SWP (Stiftung Wissenschaft
und Politik ) research paper, 2016, p. 15.
34
T. Uemura, “Understanding Chinese Foreign Relations”, cit., p. 355.
35
Ivi, p. 359.
36
A. M.H. Nordin, “Futures beyond ‘the West’? Autoimmunity in China’s harmonious world”, (ed.) in Review of
International Studies, Vol. 42, 2016, pp. 156–177, p. 164.
37
Ivi , pp. 165-166.
Guanx i , inte nde d a s re la tionship a s we ll a s re la tiona lity or inte rpe rsona lity, re fe rs to the ide a
ste mming from C hine se philosophic a l tra dition tha t one ’s e xiste nc e is dic ta te d by the prolonge d a nd
positive re la tionship with a nothe r, whic h is c onstra ine d a nd re gula te d by mora l obliga tions tha t
de ma nd a bsolute re spe c t.
30
Unde r the le ns of this mindse t, short-te rm ga ins obta ine d a t the c ost of the
othe r a c tor c a n a nd will tra nsla te into long-te rm lia bilitie s, a nd a ny short-te rm sa c rific e ma de by one
of the a c tors in orde r to prote c t the re la tion in the long run must be me t with a simila r sa c rific e of the
othe r.
31
If one doe s not re c iproc a te the fa vor re c e ive d, or ta ke s a dva nta ge of the othe r’s goodwill, the
re la tion be twe e n the a c tors will sour, a nd the e xploite r’s soc io-mora l sta nding in front of third pa rtie s
will fa ll undoubte dly a nd ine vita bly.
32
T his c onc e pt wa s a pplie d a t the inte rna tiona l sta ge be twe e n
Impe ria l C hina a nd its tributary State s ( 朝贡 体系 ), whe n tribute s we re e xc ha nge d from the tributa rie s
to the C hine se e mpe ror a nd vic e ve rsa , a nd ofte n the gifts se nt by the e mpe ror surpa sse d those of his
tributa rie s.
33
In more re c e nt time s, the infringe me nt of this c onc e pt ha s brought to the souring of
re la tion be twe e n C hina a nd the Sovie t Union, due to the la tte r’s impositions ove r C hine se a llie s
during the 1950ie s, unde rmining in the proc e ss the mora l supe riority the ir a llie s ha d initia lly c onfe rre d
to the m in virtue of the ge ne rosity showe d by the Sovie t Union.
34
R e ga rding the re la tion be twe e n
C hina a nd the Unite d Sta te s, this the ory a ffirms tha t is ha s ne ve r be e n one of a mity due to the la c k of
c ommon inte re sts a nd re c iproc ity, but ha s a lwa ys be e n one of c ompe tition a nd c onduc te d for the
purpose of stra te gic issue s, suc h a s the e xc ha nge of W e ste rn te c hnology a nd c a pita l.
35
Howe ve r, while re la tionship is one of ma ny a spe c ts of C hine se IR thought, it is ma inly
bila te ra l in na ture , a nd thus the c onc e pt tha t e xpla ins be tte r C hine se thought a nd a pproa c h to the
inte rna tiona l c ommunity in ge ne ra l is ha rmony, whic h ha s unde rgone a “ re na issa nc e ” of sorts due to
its c e ntra lity in the polic y of Hu Jinta o. T he notion of ha rmony is not a s spe c ific a s one would e xpe c t
be c a use of the diffe re nt me a ning polic yma ke rs stre ss a c c ording to the ir pe rsona l vie ws, or oc c a sion.
36
R e ga rdle ss, whe n C hine se sc hola rs re fe r to ha rmony in the c onte st of IR , the y a c tua lly me a n
“ ha rmony with diffe re nc e s” , whe re in diffe re nc e s a t the na tiona l le ve l do not pose a thre a t to the
sta bility of the inte rna tiona l syste m a nd a c tua lly re invigora te it.
37
T he usa ge of ha rmony in
inte rna tiona l re la tions throughout C hine se history ha s le d to ma ny inte re sting ra mific a tions. For
11
38
W. Yuan-Kang, Harmony and war: Confucian culture and Chinese power politics , Columbia University Press, 2011,
p. 5.
39
Ivi , p. 18.
40
A. Nordin, “Futures beyond ‘the West’?”, cit., pp. 169-170.
41
N. Noesselt, “Is There a "Chinese School" of IR?”, cit., p. 15.
42
Ibidem .
43
Q. Yaqing, “Why is there no Chinese international relations theory?”, cit., p. 322.
44
Ivi , pp. 325-326.
45
H. J. Kim, “Will IR Theory with Chinese Characteristics be a Powerful Alternative?”, cit., p. 75.
insta nc e , wa r wa s not de e me d a pra c tic a ble wa y of re solving issue s with othe r sta te s who a dopte d
ha rmony a nd pra c tic e d mora l sta te c ra ft, whic h we re inste a d re ga rde d a s pe e rs a nd tre a te d with
re spe c t.
38
Howe ve r, the re a re importa nt e xc e ptions in whic h wa r is a llowe d a nd justifie d for a sta te
pra c tic ing ha rmony. A sta te ma y a c t in se lf-de fe nse , a nd e ve n the n with re stric tions ove r its c onduc t,
or it ma y a tta c k a nothe r sta te in orde r to prote c t its pe ople from the a buse a nd la c k of mora lity of the ir
rule r.
39
Notwithsta nding the se pa c ifistic ide a ls, the c onse que nc e s of a globa l a doption of ha rmony in
inte rna tiona l re la tions in the long run ma y be unde sira ble if not dire . Ac c ording to some a uthors, the
se a rc h for a tota l ha rmony ma y in turn fue l a hunt for tha t whic h is disha rmonious, e ffe c tive ly
c a nc e ling those diffe re nc e s it na me ly prote c ts, a nd for those who do not ide ntify in a ha rmony-
c e nte re d syste m.
40
T he re fore , c onside ring the inte re st of pa rty le a de rs a nd of sc hola rs towa rds the c re a tion of
a n a utonomous C hine se sc hool of IR , a nd the pre se nc e of c onc e pts ste mming from C hina ’s own
history, one would e xpe c t C hine se sc hola rs to be inte nse ly foc use d in the c re a tion of a n indige nous
C hine se IR the ory. Howe ve r, this e xpe c ta tion would fa ll short of re a lity a s de monstra te d by a
qua ntita tive re se a rc h c onduc te d by Profe ssor Ne le Noe sse lt ove r the linka ge in C hine se a c a de mia
be twe e n the ory a nd pra c tic e in IR .
41
She shows tha t, in 2011 no ne w a rtic le s we re publishe d ove r the
possibility of a n indige niz a tion of W e ste rn IR the ory, while those foc using on C hine se c ha ra c te ristic s
re a c he d only fourte e n pe rc e nt of the tota l.
42
Ac c ording to some a uthors, the la c k of a ge ne ra l C hine se
Sc hool of IR re side s in diffe re nt fa c tors.
T he first fa c tor is tha t tra ditiona l C hine se philosophic a l thought c onc e ntra te d on the a na lysis
of a world syste m, whe re the re a re no bounda rie s be twe e n inte rna l a nd e xte rna l polic y a nd e ve rything
is c onne c te d, a nd thus the le ve l of a na lysis e mploye d is ra the r ge ne ra l.
43
T he se c ond fa c tor is the
domina nc e of W e ste rn IR the ory, whic h ha s c ome to be following the c e ntury of humilia tion a nd the
subse que nt a ba ndonme nt of tra ditiona l C hine se c onc e pts a nd philosophy, whic h a re sta rting only
now to be re -disc ove re d a nd re -a pplie d in a sc ie ntific fra me work.
44
Howe ve r, the e xc e ssive
roma ntic iz a tion of C hine se tra ditiona l philosophy ma y hinde r the c onstruc tion of a n IR the ory with
C hine se c ha ra c te ristic s be c a use the y ma y be misc onstrue d e ithe r by mista ke , due to the ir
disa pplic a tion in the la st c e ntury, or by purpose , in orde r to prote c t the na rra tive of the C PC .
45
Unde r
12
46
Ivi , p. 74.
47
S. Kumar, “Theorising Chinese International Relations and the Rise of China”, cit., p. 27.
48
B. Hueckel, “Theory of International Relations with Chinese Characteristics: The Tian-Xia System from a
Metatheoretical Perspective”, (ed.) in Diskurs Vol. 8, No. 2, 2012, pp. 34-64, p. 42.
49
M. Puranen, ““All Under Heaven as one Family”: Tianxiaist Ideology and the emerging Chinese Great Power Identity”,
(ed.) in Journal of China and International Relations, Vol. 7 No. 1, 2019 , pp. 44-61, p. 46.
50
J. Teufel Dreyer, “The ‘Tianxia Trope’: will China change the international system?”, (ed.) in Journal of Contemporary
China, Vol. 24 No.96, 2015, pp. 1015-1031, pp. 1021-1022.
this le ns, C hine se philosophy would ma sk the be lie f of C hine se undispute d supe riority ove r its
ne ighbors, for e xa mple with the re c a lls ma de to the tra ditiona l syste m of the tributa ry sta te s.
46
Anyhow, the diffic ultie s e nc ounte re d in the c onstruc tion of a C hine se IR the ory a re not
unsourma nta ble , a nd the e mployme nt of tra ditiona l c onc e pts a nd thoughts goe s through the
re disc ove ry of tra ditiona l the orie s, or doc trine s. In re c e nt time s a ne w C hine se IR the ory e me rge d
tha t stric tly re fe rs to C hine se tra ditions a nd re fute s W e ste rn c onc e pts suc h a s sove re ignty a nd
inte rna tiona l syste m, whic h is the Tianx ia (All Unde r He a ve n, 天下 ) doc trine . As we will se e in la te r
se c tions, the the ore tic a l c ore of Tianx ia , ha rmony, is the ke y in unde rsta nding be tte r C hine se
polic yma king a s justifie d by the C hine se Dre am , whic h is a pplie d a nd pursue d a t the inte rna tiona l
le ve l, a nd the Gre at R e juv e nation , a pplie d a nd pursue d in C hine se inte rna l politic s.
3. T he Ti anx i a doc t ri ne : C onc e pt s a nd i m pl i c a t i ons
B e fore we sta rt a n a na lysis of the Tianx ia the ory, we must first ma ke some ge ne ra l
c onside ra tions. Tianx ia c a n ha ve thre e diffe re nt me a nings; it c a n be me a nt a s the la nd of the world,
the re fore a s a topogra phic a l c onc e pt, or a s a ll the pe ople inha biting the world, re fe rring to its
a nthropologic a l na ture , or it ma y re fe r to the c onc e pt of a n institution ruling ove r a ll the pe ople
inha biting the world.
47
T he se nua nc e s se rve to show one of the ke y c onc e pts in T ia nxia the ory, tha t
is to sa y tha t whe n we spe a k of the world, a ll of the me a nings ha ve to be ke pt in mind.
48
Origina lly
Tianx ia se rve d to ide ntify the wa y the C hine se e mpe ror, be c a use of a nd tha nks to his mora l
supe riority, rule d ove r a ll of the known world e ithe r dire c tly or indire c tly, through the submission of
the tributa ry sta te s tha t we re orga niz e d in a stric t hie ra rc hy.
49
T he the ory first e me rge d during the Z hou dyna sty (1027-256 B C E ), a nd in its origina l sta te
re lie d on a c e ntra l C hine se gove rnme nt tha t ma na ge d a n ope n ne twork of sub-sta te s. For the ir
le gitima tion the y de pe nde d on the C hine se mona rc hy tha t ma na ge d a nd c ontrolle d the sha re d
re sourc e s a nd a llowe d pe ople fre e dom to move to a nd work in a ny sta te .
50
T his syste m origina lly
c a me to be be c a use during the Z hou c onque st of C hina , the y ha d to re ly he a vily on a llia nc e s a nd the ir